THE 

PEACTICAL 

BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S 

GUIDE: 

A CONCISE TREATISE 

ON 

BRASS FOUNDING, MOULDING, THE METALS 
AND THEIR ALLOYS, ETC. 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED 



KECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN TIIE MANUFACTURE OF IKON, STEEL 
BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS, ETC., ETC. 



BY JAMES LARKIN, 

LATE CONDUCTOR OF THE BRASS FOUNDRY DEPARTMENT IN REANEY, NEAFIB AND 
CO.'S PENN WORKS, PHILADELPHIA. 



FIFTH EDITION REVISED WITH EXTENSIVE ADDITIONS. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

1NDUSTUIAI, PUBLISHER, 
No. 406 WALNUT ST. 

1872. 



Ts t> 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 
HENRY CAREY BATED, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in mid 
for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 









O 



*»***• jr 



PREFACE. 



The world at present groans under a load of new 
publications on every branch of science and art; 
with which no former period of our literary annals 
can for a moment be compared. 

The most assiduous students, unable to peruse a 
thousandth part of the works which are daily soli- 
citing their attention, are quite perplexed and dis- 
tressed about what to choose and what to reject. 

This I have frequently found to be the case 
with myself, and while debating the question in 
my own mind, have lost, in doubt and uneasiness, 
the time I meant to set apart for practical manipu- 
lation. 

Impressed, therefore, with the unspeakable dis- 
advantages that result from the circumstances just 

(7) 



viii PREFACE. 

stated, and anxious to save others, in some degree, 
from that unpleasant dilemma in which I have 
myself been so often placed, I have resolved on 
the present publication, which I hope will to a 
very great extent accomplish the useful object I 
have in view. 

With what judgment, however, the design has 
been formed, and with what skill it has been exe- 
cuted, it becomes not me to determine — that ques- 
tion, to the result of which I am deeply alive, remains 
now with a higher tribunal. 

During the last fifteen years I have, from time 
to time, contributed papers to well known mechanical 
and philosophical publications, on subjects herein 
discussed. These I have carefully revised for the 
present work, and have added much information 
gleaned in the field of experience, and from the 
arcana of science. 

I would add in conclusion, that I have been 
practically employed in the business for thirty- four 
years, having conducted the work, in all its branches, 
at Messieurs Sandford et Varreles, Rue de Roche- 
chourt, one of the largest ateliers in Paris, as well 



PREFACE. ix 

as at the British government works, steam-engine 
and ship-building yard, Woolwich, London, for the 
last eleven years — so that the reader may relieve 
himself of all doubt and difficulty in the matter. 

James Larkin. 



PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 

With a view to its increased value and useful- 
ness, the Publisher issues this greatly enlarged 
and improved edition of The Practical Brass 
and Iron" Founder's Guide, prepared from tho 
manuscript of the author. 

Philadelphia. March 15. 1SC6. 



CONTENTS. 



paciii 



On the Properties of the Metals . • 


• • 


19 


On Metallic Alloys .... 


• 


32 


Table of Metals . . » . 


• • 


37 


Conducting Powers of Metals . 


. 


38 


Table of Experimental Results as to some of the Chemical 




and Physical Properties of the Atomic Alloys 


of Copper 




and Zinc, and of Copper and Tin 


• 


40 


On Founding .... 




42 


On Brass Founding .... 


• 


43 


Copper ..... 




45 


On the Reduction of Copper • . . 


• 


46 


Tin . 




47 


On the Reduction of Tin, Grain and Block Tin 


• 


49 


On Zinc ..... 




50 


On Lead ..... 


• 


51 


On Antimony .... 




52 


Order and Working of Metals . . . 


• 


53 


On Copper and Tin . . . 




54 


Bronze for Cannon, Statues, &c. • 


• 


55 


On Bell Metal .... 




55 


On Copper and Tin Mixtures . . . 


• 


56 


Alloys of Copper and Zinc . . . 




57 


Alloys of Copper, Zinc, Tin, and Lead 


• 


59 


MaLheim Gold .... 




CO 



(11) 



xii CONTENTS. 






PAGE 


Pinchbeck ...... 


60 


Princess Metal • •••«. 


61 


Tombac ...... 


61 


Artificial Gold ...... 


61 


Fine Brazing Solder • • • • • 


61 


Remarks ....... 


62 


Facing ....... 


63 


Metallic Moulds ...... 


64 


Pewtering ...... 


65 


Complex Objects ...... 


66 


On Bell Founding ..... 


67 


On Gun Founding ...... 


68 


On Figure Casting • ■ . . 


70 


Brass Mirrors ...... 


72 


Copper ....... 


72 


Metals ....... 


72 


Surface of Metals ..... 


73 


Blanched Copper ...... 


73 


British Weapons and Tools in Bronze, anciently called Co- 




rinthian and Syracuse Brass . . 


73 


On Brass ....... 


74 


Casting in Plaster ..... 


75 


To Transfer Engravings to Plaster Casts . 


77 


To Varnish Plaster Casts .... 


77 


To Cast Concave or Convex Moulds of Medals on Tin-Foil, 




with Plaster ...... 


78 


To Cast Vegetables, Insects, Small Birds, Frogs, Fish, &c, 




in Plaster Moulds ..... 


79 


To Prepare a Metal for the Above .... 


80 


Sir Isaac Newton's Fusible Metal 


80 


Rose's Alloy ...... 


80 



CONTENTS. 



xin 



Dr. Dalton's Fusible Alloy .... 


80 


To Cast in Wax . . . 


81 


To Cast in Sulphur ..... 


82 


To Cast in Glue ...... 


83 


To make a Fine Glue, wherewith you may cast Curious 




Medals .... 


83 


To Cast in Bread Paste .... 


84 


To Cast Figures in Imitation of Ivory 


85 


Rice Glue Statuary . 


85 


A Composition for Ornaments .... 


86 


Alloys, Amalgams, &c. 


87 


Native Alloys . 


88 


Density of Metals ..... 


89 


Bronze, Bell, and Speculum Metals . , 


90 


Combination and Chemical Action 


91 


Yellow Brass ...... 


92 


To make Copper Medals and Medallions 


93 


Amalgamation of Metals ..... 


94 


Bismuth ...... 


97 


On Friction ...... 


98 


On Bells ...... 


100 


On Fluxes . . . . . • 


101 


Fusing and Melting Points .... 


103 


Fluidity ....... 


104 


Anti-Friction Metals . ... 


105 


Table for Converting Decimal Proportions into Divisions of 




the Pound Avordupois .... 


10G 


Keller's Statue Composition 


107 


The Chinese Packfong ..... 


108 


Copper ....... 


108 


Silver Steel ... 


109 



2 



xiv CONTENTS. 




Copper and Antimony 


PVGE 

. IOj 


Antimony and Tin, Copper and Bismuth 


109 


Bismuth and Lead .... 


. 110 


Full Measure of Capacity of Tin and Lead 


110 


Brilliants of Fahlun 


. 110 


Queen's Metal ..... 


111 


Tin and Zinc .... 


. Ill 


Tin and Iron ..... 


111 


To Silver Copper .... 


. 112 


Mosaic Gold ..... 


112 


To Bronze Brass, &c. . • . 


. 113 


Lacquers ..... 


114 


Green Bronze Liquid . . . 


. 117 


To Silver Ivory .... 


118 


Zincing ..... 


, 118 


Metal Plates ..... 


119 


Cast Metal Balls .... 


. 119 


Cast Iron Pipes .... 


120 


Cast Metal Cylinders 


. 121 


Specific Gravity and Weight of Materials 


121 


Specific Cohesion and Strength of Metals . 


122 


Direct Cohesion of Metals 


124 


Resistance of Metals to Pressure . 


. 125 


Resistance of Metals to Torsion 


125 


Gold and Silver Solders 


. 12G 


Brass Solder • 


127 


Method of Soldering Gold and Silver 


. 127 


To Cleanse Silver after it is Soldered . 


128 


Silver Solder for Jewellers . 


. 128 


Trinket Composition .... 


129 


Silver-Plate and Medal Alloy 


. 129 





CONTENTS. 




XV 

PA OR 


Gold Coin of America Alloy . . . 




129 


Solder for Iron 


*■•,•< 




129 


Soldering and Burning Metals . 




130 


Plumber's Solder 


. 




135 


Compositions of Pewter • . 




135 


White Metal 


. 




135 


Mosaic Mixture 


• • • • 




13G 


Silvery-Looking Metal .... 




13G 


Metal for Flute Valve Keys . . 




13G 


German Titanium 


. . . . • 




13G 


Spanish Titanium 


.... 




137 


Britannia Metal 


. . • • « 




137 


Columbia Metal 


• . . • 




138 


Type Metal 


..... 




138 


German Silver . 


.... 




139 


Speculum Metal 


..... 




140 


Remarks 


• . • . 




142 


Platina 


..... 




144 


On the Properties 


of Arsenic . 




145 


Fontamemoreau's 


New Alloys of Zinc, a substitute for 




Bronze, Copper, 


and Brass . 




' 147 


On Zinc as a Protective Covering for Iron ; and the 


Adap- 




tation of the Process of Electro-Deposition for that Pur- 




pose . 


.... 


. 


152 


Water in Pipes 


..... 


. 


162 


on Crucibles 


• • • . 


. 


163 


Plumbago . 


..... 


. 


1G6 


Hardening Steel 


• • • » 


. 


167 


On Boron . 


..... 


. 


167 


On Sulphur 


.... 


. 


170 


Selenium 


..... 




172 



svi CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

On Chlorine . . . . . ,173 

Metallic Oxides . . . . . .175 

Appendix . . . . . .177 

To Brown Gun Barrels . . . . .179 

Varnish for Gun Barrels that have undergone the Process 

of Browning . . . . . .180 

Ethereal Solution of Gold . . . .180 

To Coat Small Nails, &c, with Tin ... 181 

Bronzing Electrotype Casts — Chemical Bronze . 182 

Black Lead Bronze . . . . . .184 

Carbonate of Iron Bronze . . . .185 

To Tin Iron . . . . . .185 

Liquid Glue ...... 186 

Artificial Fire-Clay . . . . . .186 

A Cement which Resists the Action of Fire and Water 187 

Cement for the Joints of Cast Iron . . . 188 

Niello-Metallic Ornaments . . . .188 

Tracing Paper . . . . . .189 

To Fix Drawings . . . . .190 

Antidote to Arsenic . . . . .191 

To Soften Ivory . . . . .191 

To Separate the Metallic Portion from Gold and Silver 

Lace ....... 191 

Blueing and Gilding Steel ..... 192 

To Harden Steel Dies . . . . .193 

Portable Glue ..... 194 

Prevention of Corrosion . . . .194 

Cement ....... 195 

Soluble Glass . . . . . .195 

Japanning ....... 196 

To Preserve Polished Steel from Rust . . 198 







CONTENTS. 


xvii 

PAGE 


Cement for Attach 


ing 


Metal to Glass 


. 198 


Varnish for Coloured Drawings 


199 


Japanners' Copal 


Varnish . 


. 199 


Soft Varnish 




• • • • 


199 


Hard Varnish 


• 


• • • 


. 200 


Flexible Varnish 




• • • • 


200 


French Polish 


• 


• • • 


. 200 


Brunswick Black 




• ■ a • 


201 


Mordant Varnish 


• 


• • • 


. 201 


Another 




• • • • 


202 


Another 


• 


• • • 


. 202 


Another 




• • • • 


202 


Another , 


. 


• • • 


. 203 


Superior Green Transparent Varnish . 


203 


Etching Varnish 


• 


■ •<>• 


. 204 



PAGE 

205 
207 
208 

208 



SUPPLEMENT. 

On Pattern making — Contraction of Metals, etc. 
Conducting Heat of Brass and Iron 
Varieties of Tombac .... 
On Sand-Core Moulding, Blackening, etc. . 
On Washing Sweepings, Ashes, etc., from Brass Foun 
dry Furnaces, Gilders' and Jewellers' Workshops, 
and Places where Metallurgic Operations are carried 

on 214 

Cornish Refining Flux .... 217 

Crude, or White Flux . . . . .217 

Black Flux ...... 218 

Cornish Reducing Flux ..... 218 

Imitation Silver Metal .... 218 



xvni CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

On Case-hardening Iron .... 218 

Varnish for Iron .... 219 

Varnish for Polished Iron . . . 219 

To Preserve Gum Arabic Solutions . . . 219 

Best Composition of Brass for Rolling and Forging . 219 

Remarks on the Fluxing of Metals . . . 220 

Tinning Cast Copper or Brass .... 221 

Table of Experiments on the Tenacity of Metals . 222 

On Reducing Copper with White Arsenic . . 223 

Tin and Zinc. ..... 223 

Tin and Iron ...... 224 

Copper, Tin, and Iron Alloy . . . 224 

Corinthian Bronze ..... 224 

Syracuse Bronze ..... 224 

Ship-nails Composition, strong and durable . . 225 

Chinese White Metals .... 225 

Fenton's Anti-friction Metal . . . . 225 

To make White Lacquer .... 225 

On Iron, and some Improvements in its Manufacture 226 

Table of Comparative Strength of Cast-Iron . . 232 

Table of Comparative Strength of Wrought-Iron . 240 

On the Strength of Materials. By C. A. Lee & Co. . 252 

Table of Strength of Materials . . . 255 

On the Strength of Iron.— Cast-Iron . . . 259 

Composition for Silvering Brass . . . 267 

Steel by the Bessemer Process. By A. L. Holly . 268 

To Silver Brass ..... 283 

Resistance to Compression .... 283 

Table from Mr. Hodgkinson's Experiments . 285 
Static Pressure of Water under different Heads . 289 
Directions for Preparation snd Fitting of Babbit's Anti- 
Attrition Metal ..... 292 

Soldering Fluid for Soft Solder . . .294 

Alloy of the Standard Measure used by Government 294 

Tutenag ...... 295 

Expansion Metal . . . 295 



BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S GUIDE. 



ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

The metals constitute by far the most numerous 
class of undecompounded bodies in chemical arrange- 
ments. They are, in general, readily distinguished 
from other substances, by characters which every 
one recognises ; but to an ordinary observer they do 
not appear to differ essentially from one another ; 
they seem rather to owe their differences of colour, 
and other physical properties, to a tinge and cha- 
racter given to them by adventitious circumstances, 
and perhaps some trifling admixture of other sub- 
stances. This opinion is natural, and was at one 
time the prevailing doctrine of the learned. 

When chemistry began to be developed in the 

hands of the alchemists — upon whom it has been 

fashionable to heap ridicule for the extravagances 

of their notions — it was generally admitted that all 

(19} 



20 PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

metals were essentially the same ; and as gold was 
reckoned the most precious, it was assumed to be 
the pure basis of all the other metals. Upon this 
assumption, the aim of alchemy was direct and ra- 
tional; its object was to separate the substance, 
whatever it might be, the presence of which pre- 
vented lead and other base metals from being gold. 

It is hardly necessary to observe that these efforts 
failed. Accordingly modern chemists, taught by 
experience to believe the required decomposition 
impossible, have come to the matter-of-fact conclu- 
sion that when metals are of different colours, degrees 
of hardness, lustre, ductility, fusibility, and so on, 
that they are of different natures. 

Although the metallic character be readily and 
popularly recognised, it is difficult to define it with 
accuracy. 

With the single exception of quicksilver, the 
metals are all solid at ordinary atmospheric tem- 
peratures ; but their most striking property is their 
lustre, which is so remarkable as to be at once 
understood by the expression, metallic lustre. This 
property belongs, in a greater or less degree, to 
every metal : it is the property of strongly reflect- 
ing light, and seems connected with a certain state 
of aggregation of the metallic particles. The samo 



PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 21 

property is however possessed, at least superficially, 
in a minor degree, by mica, animal charcoal, 
silenium, and polished indigo — bodies not at all 
metallic. 

In consequence of the peculiar power of the 
metals to reflect light, they are no less remarkable 
for their opacity than their lustre. Thus, silver- 
leaf, only one hundred-thousandth of an inch in 
thickness, is perfectly opaque ; and leaves of other 
metals, in general, allow no light to pass through 
their substance. Yet gold-leaf, of the two hundred- 
thousandth part of an inch in thickness, would seem, 
as observed by Sir Isaac Newton, to transmit green 
rays of light; and it is probable that, could we 
obtain films of other metals of equal thinness, they 
would be found to allow certain rays to pass through 
them. The fact, as observed with gold, has how- 
ever been ascribed to the porosity of the metal, the 
rays transmitted passing through an infinite number 
of minute fissures in the thin leaf. This, it must 
be admitted, is quite compatible with perfect opacity 
of the substance of the metal ; the leaf, like a piece 
of wire gauze, allowing the light to pass only through 
its interstices, and not through the solid metal itself, 
which may be perfectly impervious to all luminous 
rays. 



22 PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

The polished metals are imperfect radiators and 
receivers of heat, but they are excellent reflectors, 
both of light and heat : hence their peculiar fitness 
for the construction of mirrors. They are also, in 
general, excellent conductors of heat, and most of 
them also of electricity, though probably not all. 
The greater number of them are susceptible of 
assuming the crystalline form. With several of 
them this may be effected by fusion and slow 
cooling. Thus, by suffering the melted metal in 
a crucible slowly to concrete externally, and then 
perforating the solid crust, and pouring out the 
liquid interior, the cavity so formed will be found 
lined with crystals. 

When a metal is precipitated by another, it is 
often deposited in a crystalline state. Thus, if a 
little mercury be thrown into a solution of nitrate 
of silver (lunar caustic), the silver is precipitated in 
beautiful crystals. The same phenomenon occurs, 
when a bit of zinc is suspended in a salt of lead. 
In like manner, if a stick of phosphorus be immersed 
in a silver solution, it becomes incrusted with beau- 
tiful metallic crystals, which after some time per- 
fectly encase the phosphorus. Gold is also some- 
times deposited in crystals from its ether solutions ; 
and during the decomposition of several of the 



PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 23 

metallic solutions, by galvanic electricity, especially 
when low powers are employed, beautiful metallic 
crystals are often obtained. This is readily verified 
with solutions of copper and silver salts. 

The metals possess, in different degrees, a pecu- 
liar tenacity, which, in its greatest perfection, ren- 
ders them malleable and ductile — that is, capable 
of being extended under the hammer, and drawn 
into wire — properties which belong to no other 
species of matter. Thus, gold and silver may be 
beaten into leaves almost inconceivably thin ; cop- 
per, tin, platinum, and lead, possess the same pro- 
perty, but less perfectly ; others are entirely desti- 
tute of it, as arsenic, antimony, and cobalt. These 
last can indeed be readily reduced to fine powder, 
and hence they are distinguished as brittle metals. 

Those metals which are malleable are also ductile ; 
these properties are analogous, but do not appear 
to bear a uniform relation to each other, among the 
metals possessing them. Gold and silver are, how- 
ever, the most ductile, as they are the most malle- 
able. Thus, a grain of gold may be extended by 
hammering, so as to cover fifty-two square inches of 
surface, or it may be drawn into 500 feet of wire, 
and by enveloping it in silver, it may be extended to 
700 feet. In like manner, platinum, which is in- 



24 



PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



ferior to copper and tin in malleability, has been 
drawn into wire not more than the 30 go 5th. of an 
inch diameter — a degree of fineness, which, except 
under certain circumstances of illumination, is in- 
visible. Iron may be drawn into wire as fine as the 
human hair; copper is less ductile, and zinc, tin, 
and lead, can be drawn into wire, but considerably 
less fine. The brittle metals, as might be supposed, 
do not draw. 

The following table shows the order which the 
metals bear to one another, in respect to these pro- 
perties : — 



A TABLE SHOWING THE ORDER WHICH THE METALS BEAR TO ONE 
ANOTHER IN RESPECT TO THEIR PROPERTIES : — 



Order of Malle- 
ability. 


Order of Ductility. 'Order of Tenacity. 


Order of Brittle- 
ness. 


Gold, 
Silver, 
Copper, 
Tin, 

Cadmium, 
Platinum, 
Lead, 
Zinc, 
Iron, 
Nickel, 
Palladium, 
Potassium, 
Sodium, 
1 Solid mercury, 


Gold, 

Silver, 

Platinum, 

Iron, 

Copper, 

Zinc, 

Tin, 

Lead, 

Nickel, 

Palladium, 

Cadmium, 


Iron . .1000 
Copper 550 
Platinum 494 
Silver . . 349 
Gold . . 273 
Zinc . . 199 
Tin . . . 63 
Lead . . 50 


Antimony, 

Arsenic, 

Bismuth, 

Cerium, 

Chromium, 

Cobalt, 

Columbium, 

Manganese, 

Molybdenum, 

Tellurium, 

Titanium, 

Tungsten, 

Uranium, 

Rhodium. 


Iron wire 1-tonth in . 
diameter is capable 
of sustaining oOOlbs. 
avoirdupois. 



PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



25 




are scratched by calc-spar. 



Few of the metals when pure are very hard, and 
some are so soft as to yield to the nail. The fol- 
lowing table of hardness is given from the experi- 
ments of M. Dumas : — 

Titanium, 

Tungsten, } are harder than steel. 

Manganese 

Platinum, 

Palladium, 

Copper, 

Gold, 

Silver, 

Tellurium, 

Bismuth, 

Cadmium, 

Tin, 

Chromium, 

Rhodium, 

Nickel, 

Cobalt, 

Iron, 

Antimony, 

Zinc, 

Lead yields to the nail. 

Potassium, 

Sodium, 



scratch glass. 



are scratched by glass. 



} 



are soft as wax at G0°. 



Mercury is liquid above minus 09°. 



26 PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

In respect to fusibility — that is, the capability of 
being melted by heat — the metals differ from each 
other as widely as in any other respect. Thus, mer- 
cury requires to be cooled down to minus 39° before 
it becomes solid, whereas the melting point of pla- 
tinum is somewhere beyond 3280°. Potassium melts 
at 140°, and sodium at 190°. Tin becomes liquid 
at 444°, bismuth at 500°, lead at 600°, zinc at 770°, 
and antimony at 800°. Silver, gold, and copper, 
require a bright cherry-red heat to melt them (about 
2000°) ; cast iron, nickel, and cobalt, a white heat 
(about 2800°) ; and manganese, and malleable iron, 
the highest heat of a smith's forge (about 3000°). 
The highest temperatures of our furnaces are only 
sufficient to agglutinate very imperfectly the "metals 
molybdenum, uranium, tungsten, and chromium ; 
and titanium, cerium, osmium, iridium, rhodium, 
platinum, and columbium, require the intense heat 
of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, or that of voltaic 
electricity, to fuse them. Some of the metals, when 
exposed to heat, not only melt, but, obeying the 
general law of liquids, boil and evaporate when the 
heat is sufficiently high. Thus, mercury, zinc, cad- 
mium, bismuth, tellurium, and antimony, boil and 
evaporate at a red heat ; and, in a vacuum, mercury 
is known to evaporate at ordinary atmospheric tern- 



PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 27 

peratures (above 50°) ; silver and lead require a 
high heat to vaporize them ; tin a still higher heat ; 
and gold will only evaporate slowly under the most 
intense heat that can be applied. Several of the 
other metals, as iron and nickel, cannot be made to 
evaporate in the most intense heat with which we 
are acquainted. Arsenic, on the other hand, eva- 
porates without melting. 

There are several of the metals which emit a pecu- 
liar odour, especially when rubbed, or have their 
temperature slightly raised. This is particularly the 
case with copper, iron, and tin. The vapour of 
others is very remarkable. The arsenic vapour has 
the smell of garlic; that of tellurium smells like 
horseradish ; and osmium takes its name from the 
smell of its vapour (osme, odour). Some of the 
metals have also a peculiar taste when applied to the 
tongue, which has been ascribed to their electrical 
condition ; but it must be remarked that many of 
the most oxidable metals are entirely destitute both 
of taste and odour. 

A high specific gravity was reckoned one of the 
most marked characteristics of the metals, till the 
discovery of the metallic basis of the alkalies by 
Sir Humphrey Davy. So intimately indeed was the 
metallic lustre associated in the mind with great 



28 PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

weight, that when a piece of potassium was put, for 
the first time, into the hand of an eminent teacher 
of chemistry, in admiring its perfect metallic cha- 
racter, he poised it upon the finger, and exclaimed, 
" How heavy !" and the prejudice was only removed 
by seeing it float upon water. The list of metals, 
however, includes the densest forms of matter with 
which we are acquainted; and, although great weight 
cannot be regarded as a universal property, we have 
few examples in which the density is less than the 
density of water. These examples comprehend only 
potassium and sodium ; all other metals are of 
greater specific gravity, up to platinum, which is 
twenty-one times the weight of an equal bulk of 
water. 

The degrees of facility with which the metals 
combine with oxygen differ widely. Some, by mere 
exposure to the atmosphere, absorb its oxygen with 
great rapidity : such is the case with potassium and 
sodium : others absorb it more slowly, as manganese, 
iron, and arsenic ; and lead and copper still more 
slowly. Others, again, do not oxidate by exposure 
to air, unless at a high temperature ; this is the case 
with tin, zinc, mercury, antimony, bismuth, and 
cobalt, which absorb the oxygen readily when in a 



PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 20 

state of fusion. Others, again, do not oxidate by 
exposure to air and heat, or by immersion in water, 
as gold and platinum ; the same is nearly true of 
nickel and silver. The tendency of the metals to 
combine with oxygen appears, however, to be greatly 
influenced by their mechanical condition ; for some 
of them, which are only slowly oxidized by expo- 
sure to air and heat, are rapidly acted upon when 
in very fine mechanical division, even at common 
temperatures. 

In combining with oxygen under heat, some of 
the metals burn with great splendour : this is exem- 
plified in copper, zinc, tin, and bismuth. Iron filings, 
when thrown even into the flame of a candle, and 
very fine iron wire, when held in the external part 
of the flame, take fire and throw off beautiful scin- 
tillations. Antimony burns at a white heat, and 
tellurium burns before the flame of the blow-pipe. 
In short, at intense heats most of the metals may 
be burned, and, if placed in the flame of the oxy- 
hydrogen blow-pipe, they deflagrate with intense 
brilliancy and great facility. 

On the other hand, potassium burns by contact 

with a piece of ice, with as much intensity as others 

do in the oxy-hydrogen flame. 
3* 



80 PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

The metals, by combination with oxygen, lose 
their metallic characters, and form an important 
series of definite compounds known as the metallic 
oxides. These have very different characters and pro- 
perties ; even the same metal not unfrequently affords 
oxides which differ from each other widely in pro- 
perties and appearance. Thus fifty parts of mercury, 
combining with one part of oxygen, produces a black 
oxide, and with two parts of oxygen, the oxide is 
red and highly poisonous. Many of the metals 
thus afford more than one oxide ; and it is to be 
observed, that when the same metal unites in more 
than one proportion with oxygen, the oxygen in the 
second and higher oxides bears a definite arith- 
metical relation to the first ; and when two oxides 
are thus formed, that having the minimum of oxy- 
gen is termed the protoxide, and that with the 
maximum of oxygen the peroxide. This law of 
definite proportions will be explained hereafter. 

Among the combinations of metals with oxygen, 
some are soluble in water and alkaline, such as the 
fixed alkalies, soda, potash, and lithia, and the 
alkaline earths ; others are soluble and sour, form- 
ing the metallic acids. Some are insoluble in water, 
and have neither taste nor smell ; and many when 



PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 31 

taken into the stomach act as poisons. Thus, oxide 
of arsenic is a notorious and virulent poison ; oxide 
of copper is less virulent than arsenic ; oxide of 
lead is a painful poison ; oxide of nickel is also 
destructive of life; and the peroxide of mercury, 
unless in small quantities, is likewise poisonous. 



32 PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



ON METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The metals, for the most part, may be combined 
with each other, forming a most important class of 
compounds, known as the metallic alloys. Many 
of these are more useful than the metals of which 
they are composed, and possess properties a good 
deal different from their elements. One of the best 
known and most serviceable of all the alloys is brass, 
a compound of zinc and copper : it is harder, more 
easily melted, more close in the texture, better 
coloured, and less liable to tarnish than copper ; it 
is less brittle, and in every way more valuable than 
zinc. Pinchbeck is composed of the same ingre- 
dients as brass, but in different proportions, the 
zinc predominating. Copper and tin are two very 
soft and flexible metals, which, being fused together, 
form the alloy known as bell-metal, which is harder 
than iron, very brittle, and very sonorous. The 
same materials, in different proportions, form spe- 
culum metal, and the kind of ordnance improperly 
called brass cannon. Pewter is composed of tin 
and lead, sometimes with the addition of zinc, cop- 
per, or bismuth. 



ON METALLIC ALLOYS. 33 

Plates upon which music is stamped are composed 
of tin and antimony ; and printing types are formed 
of an alloy of lead and antimony, with a slight ad- 
dition of bismuth. Tin-foil is an alloy of tin and 
lead ; and plumbers' solder is composed of the same 
metals. Fusible metal is a compound of bismuth, 
lead, and tin, with sometimes a little mercury. 

An amalgam of zinc and mercury is used for ex- 
citing electric machines, and that of mercury and 
tin is the compound employed for silvering looking- 
glasses. Gold coin is an alloy of gold and copper, 
in the proportion of 11 to 1 ; and jewellers' gold is 
an alloy of the same metals in the proportion of 3 of 
gold to 1 of copper. Green gold has silver instead 
of copper. Silver coin, in like manner, is an alloy 
of silver and copper in the proportion of 37 to 3. 
These alloys of gold and silver are harder, and 
consequently less liable to wear than the pure 
metals. 

It is worthy of remark, that in the formation of 
alloys, the metals in the act of combination gene- 
rally evolve heat. For instance, when platinum and 
tin-foil are fused together, there is the most vivid 
ignition ; and when zinc and copper are suddenly 
mixed, in the proportion to form brass, the increase 
of heat is such as to vaporize part of the metal, 



34 PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

The alloys are formed by various processes, de- 
pending upon the nature of the metals employed. 
Most of them are prepared by simply fusing the 
two metals together ; but if there be a considerable 
difference in their specific gravities, the heavier 
very generally subsides, and the lower part of the 
mass thus differs in composition from the upper. 
This may be in a great measure prevented by agi- 
tating the alloy till it solidifies, but this is not 
always convenient. Thus, in stereotype plates 
wdiich are cast vertically, the upper side usually 
contains more antimony than the other. The same 
is observed when an alloy of gold and copper is cast 
into bars ; the mould being placed perpendicularly, 
the upper part of the bar contains more copper than 
the lower. Copper and silver evince the same ten- 
dency to separate; although they appear readily to 
combine, it is found extremely difficult to form a 
bar of their alloy of perfectly uniform composition 
throughout. Many of the alloys, however, appear 
to be true chemical compounds ; and in some cases 
the metals unite in definite proportions only. 

It is indeed not improbable that wherever metals 
do form alloys, that the alloys so formed are definite 
compounds, and that any undue quantity of either 
metal present, simply mixes mechanically with the 



ON METALLIC ALLOYS. 35 

mass. Thus, among the artificial as well as natural 
alloys, there are many which crystallize ; and in 
some cases, the true compound may be separated 
from the mere mixture of the superfluous metal by 
the process of crystallization. 

The tendency of the metals to unite with other 
elements, and with each other, prevents their being 
often found disseminated in mineral nature, in their 
pure metallic state. 

Some of them do occur so nearly pure as to be 
called native metals. Thus gold is found only 
slightly alloyed with silver and copper, and pla- 
tinum occurs as an alloy of iron, palladium, iridium, 
rhodium, and osmium. Silver, copper, mercury, 
antimony, bismuth, arsenic, and tellurium, occur 
both in the native metallic state, although never 
absolutely pure, and mineralized with other bodies. 
Lead, tin, zinc, iron, antimony, and several others, 
are extensively disseminated as sulphurets, that is, 
combined or mineralized by sulphur. 

The combination of a metal with its mineralizing 
substance, is what we denominate an ore; and it is in 
this state of ore that metals occur, when they are not 
found native. The ores are exceedingly diversified 
in appearance ; sometimes they possess metallic 



3t> PROrERTIES OF THE METALS. 

lustre ; sometimes they appear stony, at other times 
earthy. In some instances they are crystallized 
into regular forms, but more commonly they occur 
in shapeless masses. The ores are chiefly found in 
veins — that is, large fissures of rock, especially the 
granitic, schistous, and limestone rocks; but some- 
times they are found in rounded and detached frag- 
ments, disseminated through certain alluvial and 
diluvial strata of the earth. The extraction of the 
metal from them is denominated their reduction* 
and implies a laborious series of operations, me- 
chanical and chemical, comprehended under the 
term metallurgy. 



TABLE OF METALS. 



37 



The following table contains an enumeration of 
the metals, and may be useful for reference. The 
column headed " equivalents," shows the weight 
which unites with 8 oxygen to form the oxides, and 
the succeeding column contains the symbols by which 
the metals are denoted in systematic chemistry. 



Names of Metals. 



1. Gold (Aurum) . . . ." 

2. Silver (Argentum) . . . 
S. Iron (Ferrum) .... 

4. Copper ((Aiprum) . . , 

5. Mercury (Hydrargyrum) 

6. Lead (Plumbum) . . , 

7. Tin (Stannuin) . . . . 

8. Antimony (Stibium) . ,' 

9. Bismuth 

jlO. Zinc 

(11. Arsenio > 

12. Cobalt / 

13. Platinum 

14. Nickel 

15. Manganese 

16. Tungsten (Wolfram) . . 

17. Tellurium 

18. Molybdenum 

19. Uranium 

20. Titanium 

21. Chromium 

22. Columbium (Tantalum) . 

23. Palladium "1 

24. Rhodium f 

25. Iridium \ 

26. Osmium j 

27. Cerium 

28. Potassium (Kalium) . 

29. Sodium (Natronium) . 

30. Barium 

31. Strontium 

32. Calcium 

33. Cadmium 

34. Lithium 

35. Silicium 

36. Zirconium . . . • . 
37 Aluminum .... 

38. Glucinum 

39. Yttrium 

40. Thorium 

41. Magnesium . . .. . 

,42. Vanadium 

J43. Lantanum 



Authors, and Dates of 
their Discovery. 



Known to the 
ancients. 



Basil Valentine 1490 
Agricola . . 1530 
Paracelsus? . 1530 



Brandt > 

Wood . . 
Cronstedt . 
Gahn . . 
D'Elhuiart 
Muller . . 
Hielm . . 
Klaproth . 
Gregor . . 
Vauquelin 
Hatchett . 

Wollaston 

Tennant . 
Hisinger . 



Stromeyer 

Arfswedson 

Berzelius . 



Wohlcr . 

Berzelius . 
Bussy . . 

Scftstrom . 
Mosandcr 



1733 

1741 
1751 
1774 

1781 

1782 

1782 

1789 

1791 

179 

1802 

iso; 

1803 
1804 



Specific 
Gravity. 



Davy . . . 1S07 



1818 
1818 

1824 



182S 

1829 
1829 
1S30 
1S40 



19.25 
10.47 

7.7S 
8.89 

13.56 

11.35 
7.29 
6.70 
9.80 
7.00 
5.88 
8.53 

20.98 
8.27 
6.85 

17.60 
6.11 
7.40 
9.00 
5.30 



11.50 



0.86 
0.97 



8.60 



{: 



Melting 
Points. 



Fahr, 

2016 3 

1873 

*2800? 

1996 

—39 

612 

442 

497* 
773 

2*Sl6? 
oh. bp.f 
2810? 
S.f. 

6*20 

ohbp 

ohbp 

ohbp 

ohbp 

obbp 

ohbp 
fohbp 
(ohbp 

136 
190 



442 



Equ. 
Hyd 
= 1 



200 

108 
28 
64 

200 

104 
58 
65 
72 
32 
38 
30 
99 
30 
28 

100 
32 
48 

217 
24 
28 

185 
54 
52 
99 

100 
48 
40 
24 
70 
44 
20 
56 
8 
8 
33 
14 
18 
32 
60 
13 
69 
? 



Abr. 
or 

Sym. 



Au. 

Ag. 

Fe. 

Cu. 

Hg. 

Pb. 

Sn. 

Sb, 

Bi. 

Z. 

Ar. 

Co. 

PI. 

Ni. 

Mn. 

W. 

Te. 

Mo. 

U. 

Ti. 

Cr.- 

T. 

Pd. 

II. 

Ir. 

Os. 

Ce. 

K. 

Na. 

Ba. 

Sr. 

Ca. 

Cd. 

L. 

S. 

Zr. 

Al. 

Gl. 

Y. 

Th 

Mg 

V. 

Ln 

j 



* Smith's forge. " 



f Oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. 



as 



CONDUCTING TOWERS OF METALS. 



ON THE CONDUCTING POWERS OF VARIOUS METAL9 
FOR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 



The researches of Pouillet have thrown much 
light upon our knowledge of the conducting powers 
of various bodies for voltaic electricity, and the 
results he has arrived at enable him to express the 
relative conducting powers of the different metals 
by the following numbers : — 



Palladium 






5791 


Silver 






5152 


Gold . 






3975 


Copper . 






3838 


Platinum . , 






855 


Bismuth 






384 


Brass from 






900 to 200 


Cast steel from 






800 to 500 


Iron 






600 


Mercury 






100 



The resistance of metals to conduction of electri- 
city has been accurately ascertained by means of 
the degrees of heat evolved by the passage of a 
current of equal intensity through different metals ; 



CONDUCTING POWERS OF METALS. 



39 



the heat developed in conducting wires is in propor- 
tion to the extent of surface of the positive plate, 
no matter whether the current emanate from a sin- 
gle cell or a series of cells. The following table 
shows the degrees of heat evolved by an equal cur- 
rent from different metals, measured by the pressure 
of expanded air upon a column of alcohol : 



■ 




1 


Metals. 


Heat Evolved. 


Resistance. 


Silver .... 


6 


1 


Copper .... 


6 


1 


Gold .... 


9 


1* 


Zinc .... 


18 


3 


Platinum 


30 


5 


Iron ..... 


30 


5 


Tin ... 


36 


6 


Lead .... 


72 


12 


Brass .... 


18 


3 



It is apparent that the conducting powers of the 
above metals are inversely as these numbers. Sil- 
ver being a better conductor than lead, in the 
ratio of 12 to 1. 



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42 ON FOUNDING. 



ON FOUNDING. 



The general object of founding is, to mould iron, 
copper, tin, zinc, lead, kc, &c, in a melted state 
into the various forms required for the parts of 
machines and other constructions. 

Wrought iron and steel cannot be properly melted 
by heat. At high temperatures they drop away and 
spark off, while the main body of the metal main- 
tains its consistency, and it undergoes rapid oxida- 
tion, as is shown by the scales which are perpetually 
formed on its surface. 

These metals are, however, in this condition ren- 
dered extremely ductile, and the wrought iron espe- 
cially may be fashioned with facility into any 
required form, by the application of the hammer. 
On the contrary, pig iron, of which wrought iron 
and steel are preparations, has peculiarly the pro- 
perty of liquefaction by heat, and is therefore well 
adapted as a material for castings, in which strength 
and hardness are required. 

The business of the founder is therefore to take 
advantage of the common law, according to which 
fluids always find their level. If, for example, a 
quantity of water be poured into a vessel, however 



ON FOUNDING. 43 

curiously shaped, it first finds the bottom, and then 
spreads on all sides as it rises, filling every corner 
it can reach. The body of water must then be a 
perfect model in form of the interior of the vessel, 
and this may be seen by solidifying it in its place 
by the application of cold, and extracting the body 
of ice. 

To mould a quantity of melted metal into a 
desired form, two things are therefore necessary: 
first, a model, or pattern of the required form. 
Secondly, a substance of sufficient susceptibility and 
adhesiveness to receive accurately, and to retain 
impressions of that pattern made upon it, against 
the violence of the liquid metal, when run into the 
mould which is thereby formed. 



ON BRASS FOUNDING. 

Brass founding, considered as a branch of engi- 
neering, is beset with a host of empirical rules and 
fancies, to an extent which naturally surprises the 
scientific practician, when he considers it with regard 
to the present calculating and philosophizing age. 



44 ON BRASS FOUNDING. 

Every founder thinks he possesses the only true 
and orthodox system of producing first-rate castings, 
and, as a matter of course, every one differs from 
his neighbour in his routine of practice, without 
reflecting that the process admits as fully of a reduc- 
tion to scientific rules as any of its sister branches 
of the manipulatory art. 

It is scarcely necessary to observe, that excellence 
can never be attained in any art in the prosecution 
of which so loose a system is tolerated : guess-zvork 
will ever give chance results, productive only of 
inconveniences and objections, which a more system- 
atic code of regulations would entirely obviate. The 
number of alloys of copper which come under the 
generic name of brass, as has been shown, amount 
to a numerous family, and are of the greatest im- 
portance, not only to the engineer, but to artists 
generally, involving the use of the following differ- 
ent metals, all of which are required in a greater 
or less degree to suit the variety of operations where 
brass is indispensable : namely, copper, tin, lead, 
zinc, antimony, and, in some cases, nickel. 

The first four of these metals are those in the 
greatest request for engineering purposes. The 
leading metal of this series, copper, was known to 
the ancients previous to the discovery of malleable 



ON COPPER. 45 

iron, and was applied to all the purposes for which 
the latter metal alone is now used. 

Although we find brass frequently spoken of in 
the Scriptures, as well as in many portions of pro- 
fane history, yet it is a well ascertained fact that 
this refers to copper ; the brass of the present day 
being a discovery of much later date. 



COPPER. 



The word copper is derived from the Island of 
Cyprus, where it was first wrought by the Greeks. 
The best method of obtaining it pure, where extreme 
purity is an object of importance, is to dissolve it 
in nitric acid : the solution is then diluted, and a 
piece of iron introduced, upon which the pure metal 
is precipitated, any adherent particles of iron being 
readily removed by washing with dilute sulphuric 
acid. Another method has lately been discovered 
of purifying copper, namely, by melting 100 parts 
of it, with 10 parts of copper scales (black oxide), 
along with 10 parts of ground bottle-glass, or other 
flux. Mr. Lewis Thompson, who received a gold 



40 ON THE REDUCTION OF COPrER. 

medal from the Society of Arts, for this invention, 
says that, after the copper has been kept in fusion 
for half an hour, it will be found at the bottom of 
the crucible, perfectly pure, while the iron, lead, 
arsenic, &c, &c, with which this metal is usually 
contaminated, will be oxidized by the scales, and 
will dissolve in the flux, or be volatilized. Thus he 
has obtained perfectly pure copper from brass, bell- 
metal, gun-metal, and several other alloys, contain- 
ing from 4 up to 50 per cent, of iron, lead, bismuth, 
antimony, arsenic, &c. The scales of copper are 
cheap, being the product of every large manufac- 
tory. Copper melts at a white heat, and by slow 
cooling may be crystallized. Its specific gravity is 
9, nearly. It melts at a temperature of 1996° 
Fahr. 



On the Reduction of Copper. 

The reduction of copper ore is made by several 
consecutive processes. The first is by calcining it, 
and, when the ore is sufficiently "roasted" to oxi- 
date the iron which it contains, it is melted. The 
melted metal is, after a time, suffered to flow into a 
pit filled with water, by which it becomes granu- 
lated. 



ON TIN. 47 

It then undergoes further heating, and what is 
called technically its slag (or scoria) is taken off, and 
it is allowed again to run off into water. 

After these processes it is cast in sand, when it 
becomes solid, and in this state is called " blistered 
copper." 

It is now fit for what is called the refiner v, and 
undergoes an operation called refining, or toughen- 
ing. This is considered to be an operation of deli 
cacy, and requires great skill and care in the work- 
men. It is conducted to a furnace similar to the 
melting furnace, and the object is to thoroughly 
purify the metal from any portions of oxygen, which 
is performed by adding charcoal to the copper, while 
it is in fusion, and stirring it occasionally, till it is 
judged to be pure. 



TIN, OR BEDIL IN THE HEBREW. 

The next metal on our list has also been known 
from the remotest ages. It is mentioned by Eleazar 
the priest in the book of Numbers, chapter 31st, 
verse 22d. All the other metals supposed to have 



48 ON TIN. 

been then known are enumerated in the same pas- 
sage. Thus, lexicographers form bedil, " to sepa- 
rate," tin being a separating metal. This carries 
the knowledge and use of tin back 1500 years 
antecedent to the commencement of our era. The 
Phoenicians used tin, of course, in the erection and 
decoration of the Temple of Solomon. Their brass 
was bronze ; zinc had not then been discovered. 
We read of tin, also, having been got by the Cartha- 
ginian navigator, Himiles, from the Scilly Islands ; 
they certainly present appearances of ancient exca- 
vations. Tin occurs, native, in two forms — as per- 
oxide, and as sulphuret of tin and copper. The last 
is rare ; the former constitutes the great source of 
tin, and, in its native mixed state with arsenic, cop- 
per, zinc, and tungsten, is called "tin-stone;" but, 
when occurring in rounded masses, grains, or sand 
in alluvial soil, is called stream tin. The metal 
reduced from the tin-stone forms block tin — that 
from the stream tin forms grain tin. 

The greater part of the East Indian tin comes 
from Siam, Malacca, and Banca. The last place is 
an island near the south-east coast of Sumatra. 
The mines were discovered in 1711 ; in 1776 there 
were ten pits which were worked by the Chinese on 
account of the King of Palimbang. One hundred 






REDUCTION OF GRAIN AND BLOCK TIN. 49 

And twenty-five pounds cost him only five rix dol- 
lars. The greater part went to Alinia, or was used 
in India. 



On the Reduction of Tin, Grain, and Block Tin, 

The best ore of tin is found in Cornwall ; it is 
commonly blasted by gunpowder, and is procured 
in pieces of considerable size, which are stamped, 
by beams shod with iron, to powder. It is then 
well washed, till the earthy particles are carried 
off, and the tin is fit for the smelting-house. 

After being roasted in a reverberatory furnace, 
and again washed, it is a second time subjected to 
the furnace, being now mixed with small coal and, 
in some cases, with a small quantity of limO. The 
melted tin thus produced is at last placed in a small 
furnace, and exposed to a very gentle heat, when 
the purest portion melts first, and is drawn off. This 
is called " common grain tin." And the inferior, 
which still contains a small proportion of copper 
and arsenic, is then cast into pigs, called u block 
tin." 

The purest tin is procured from the stream works 
of Cornwall, and affords from 65 to 75 per cent, of 

the best grain tin; its specific gravity is about 7.5 j 

5 



50 OF ZINC 

it melts at a temperature of 442°. Like copper, it 
is the nucleus of an immense number of subsidiary 
metals, which it is our intention shortly to enter 
upon. 



ZINC. 



Zinc is a metal whose extensive range ' of appli- 
cation is only now beginning to be understood. It 
is found in the state of oxide and sulphuret ; its 
specific gravity is about 7.7 ; its fusing point is 
773°, but at a temperature of 300°, it becomes 
extremely malleable, and may be rolled into thin 
leaves, or drawn into fine wire. One of its most 
valuable modern applications, is as a protective 
covering for iron, being the best known substance 
for this purpose. The purifying of zinc may be 
eifected by melting the impure metal with lead, in 
equal parts, in a deep iron pot, stirring them well 
together, skimming off the impurities as they rise, 
covering the surface with charcoal to prevent oxi- 
dation, and keeping them in a fused state for three 
hours. The lead descends to the bottom by its 
greater density, and leaves the zinc above, to be 



ON LEAD. 51 

drawn off by a pipe in the side of the melting-pot. 
This contrivance is the subject of a patent, granted 
to Mr. William Godfrey Kneller, in 1844. 



LEAD. 



Lead was also known to the ancients. Its specific 
gravity is 11.4; melts at a temperature of 612°. 
This metal is highly poisonous, and the greatest 
amount of caution ought to be observed in its appli- 
cation to domestic purposes, as, when in contact 
with water in open vessels, it quickly tarnishes, and 
small crystalline scales of oxide of lead are formed, 
a portion of which dissolves in the water, and is 
again precipitated in the form of a carbonate. If, 
however, the water contains a very slight amount 
of sulphuric acid, or a soluble sulphate, the corro- 
sion is prevented. 



52 ON ANTIMONY. 



ANTIMONY. 

Antimony was discovered by Basil Valentine (a 
monk), in the fifteenth century. It is of a grayish- 
white, having a slight bluish shade, and very bril- 
liant. Its texture is lamellated, and exhibits plates 
crossing each other in every direction. Its surface 
is covered with herbarizations and foliage. Its spe- 
cific gravity is 6. 702. It is sufficiently hard to 
scratch all the soft metals ; it is very brittle, easily 
Droken, and pulverizable. It fuses at 810° Fahr. ; 
it can be volatilized, and burns by a strong heat. 
When perfectly fused and suffered to cool gradually, 
it crystallizes in octahedra. It unites with sulphur 
and phosphorus. It decomposes water strongly. It 
is soluble in alkaline sulphates ; sulphuric acid 
boiled upon antimony, is feebly decomposed. Nitric 
acid dissolves it in the cold ; muriatic acid scarcely 
acts upon it. The oxygenated muriatic gas inflames 
it, and the liquid acid dissolves it with facility. 
Arsenic acid dissolves it by heat with difficulty. It 
unites by fusion with gold, and renders it pale and 
brittle. Platina, silver, lead, bismuth, nickel, cop- 
per, arsenic, iron, cobalt, tin, and zinc unite with 



ORDER AND WORKING OF METALS. 53 

antimony by fusion, and form with it compounds 
more or less brittle. Mercury does not alloy with 
it easily. We are little acquainted with the action 
of alkalies upon it. Nitrate of potash is decomposed 
by it. It fulminates by percussion with oxygenated 
muriate of potash. 



The order and facility of working these metals 
vary considerably with the purpose to which they 
are applied. Thus, regarding their wire-drawing 
ductibility, gold is the most ductile metal, being 1. 
The four first metals are as follows : copper 5, zinc 
6, tin 7, lead 8. Their relative values as laminable 
substances are considerably different : thus, under 
the same circumstances, copper is 3, tin 4, lead 6, 
zinc 7. 

The following tabulated statements exhibit the 
most approved properties of the most useful class 
of alloys, as laid down by the best authorities, to- 
gether with the specific purposes to which they are 
adapted. The first we shall treat upon are the 
alloys of copper and tin. In this table the quantity 
of tin is that which is added to one pound of copper. 



54 ON COPPEft AND TIN. 



COPPER AND TIN. 

1 ounce, Soft gun metal. 

" A slightly harder alloy, fit for ma- 
thematical instruments. 

" Still harder, fit for wheels. 

" Brass -guns. 

" Hard bearings for machinery. 

" Musical bells. 

" Chinese gongs, cymbals, &c. 

" Small house bells for domestic pur- 
poses. 

" Large do. 

" Largest bells, for churches, &c. 

" Speculum metal for the reflectors 
of telescopes, light-houses, &c. 

Temper, is a mixture of 2 pounds of tin to 1 pound 
of copper, and is used for adding to tin in the 
manufacture of pewter ; the object being to intro- 
duce an extremely small quantity of copper. 





n 




ij 


11 


to 2 


2 


to2J 




3 




H 




4 




41 




5 


* 


to 8 



ON BRONZE AND BELL METAL. 55 



BRONZE FOR CANNON, STATUES, ETC. 

Bronze is an alloy of copper, with from 8 to 10 
per cent, of tin, together with small quantities of 
other metals, which are not essential to the com- 
pound. Cannons are cast with an alloy of a similar 
kind, and the ancient bronze statues were of the 
same composition. 



ON BELL METAL. 

Bell metal is a compound of 80 parts copper to 
20 parts tin. The Indian gong, so much celebrated 
for the richness of its tones, contains copper and tin, 
in the above proportions. The proportion of tin in 
bell metal varies, however, from one-third to one- 
fifth of the weight of copper, according to the sound 
required, the size of the bell, and the impulse to be 
given. M. de Arcet has discovered that bell metals 
formed in the proportion of 78 parts copper, united 
with 22 of tin, is indeed nearly as brittle as glass, 
when cast in a thin plate or gong. Yet if it bo 



56 ON COPPER AND TIN MIXTURES. 

heated to a cherry-red, and plunged into cold water, 
being held between two plates of iron, that the plate 
may not bend, it becomes malleable. Thus he 
manufactures gongs, cymbals, and tantums out of 
this compound. 



ON COPPER AND TIN MIXTURES. 

The above are the best proportions in use at the 
present day; for some other peculiar objects a 
slightly different mixture is adopted, as a small 
amount of zinc or silver, and even arsenic. The 
best mode of mixing the component metals of this 
alloy, appears to be to melt each separately, and 
then to add the tin to the copper at the lowest stir- 
ring temperature. To complete the combination 
the alloy is again melted very gradually by placing 
the metal in the crucible almost as soon as the fire 
is lighted. The hardness of this alloy, compared 
with the extreme softness of the metals, gives us an 
example of the chemical changes effected by their 
combination. Thus, the speculum metal, as used 
by Lord Rosse, is totally devoid of malleability, and 
from its hardness cannot be acted on by the file. 



SPECULUM, COPPER, AND ZINC. b? 

His speculum consisted of four atoms of chemical 
combining proportions of copper to one of tin : or, 
by weight, 126.4 copper to 58.9 tin. This alloy, 
which is a true chemical compound, is of a brilliant 
white lustre ; its specific gravity 8.811 ; nearly as 
hard as steel, and almost as brittle as sealing-wax. 
The speculum is six feet in diameter, five and a half 
inches thick. It was cast open, ground with emery, 
placed on a table in a cistern filled with water at a 
temperature of 55° Fahr., polished with red oxide 
of iron, procured by precipitation from green vitriol, 
or sulphate of iron, by water of ammonia. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 

We now come to the consideration of another 
branch of the copper alloy family of great value in 
the arts. This is copper and zinc. 

The following table contains the best proportions 
of the principal mixtures. In this table the quan- 
tity of zinc is that which is added to one pound of 
copper. 



58 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 



to J 



toll 

2 
to 4 



5 





to7| 



8 



lot 



14 



16 



ounce. This addition is used principally 
for the purpose of producing 
sound copper castings. 

Gilding metal for jewellers. 

Tombac, or red brass. 

Red sheet brass, pinchbeck, and 
bath metal. 

Purbeck metal. 

Bristol brass. This and the five 
preceding mixtures solder well. 

Good dipping metal. 

The general proportion for all or- 
dinary brass articles. 

Muntz's metal, for ships' fasten- 
ings, sheathing, &c. 

Strong brazing solder, for heavy 
copper work, &c. 

Soft spelter solder. 



From the volatile nature of zinc the above pro- 
portions can seldom be strictly adhered to; but a 
slight variation does not much affect the filing and 
working of the metal. 

An alloy of copper and lead is often used in place 
of gun metal for inferior work, on account of its 



ON COPPER, ZINC, TIN, AND LEAD. 59 

cheapness and facility of manipulation. It is very 
brittle, particularly where much lead is used. 

The whole of the different metals just discussed, 
when mixed together, constitute gun metal, or brass, 
par excellence. This alloy is applied to a very 
great variety of purposes, and is the one most in 
demand for engineering works. The principal ones 
are compounded as below. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, ZINC, TIN, AND LEAD. 

1 J ounces tin, J ounce zinc, and 16 ounces copper, 
constitute an extremely tenacious metal, used where 
great strength is required. 

1J ounces tin, 2 ounces brass, 16 ounces copper, 
for wheels, &c. 

2 ounces tin, 1J ounces brass, 16 ounces copper, 
for articles requiring turning. 

2i ounces tin, 1 J ounces brass, 16 ounces copper, 
for bearings, nuts, &c. 

1| ounces tin, 1| ounces zinc, 16 ounces copper 
a composition for general purposes, used by an emi- 
nent engineer. 



60 ALLOYS. 

2J ounces tin, J ounce zinc, 16 ounces copper, 
for bearings to resist great strains. 

2J ounces tin, 2J ounces zinc, 16 ounces copper, 
an extremely hard metal, almost too hard for the 
file. 

1 ounce tin, 2 ounces zinc, 16 ounces copper, good 
button metal. 

5 pounds of zinc to 8 pounds of brass (called pla- 
tina), an extremely pale, nearly white metal, used 
by Birmingham button-makers. 

9 pounds of zinc to 32 pounds of brass, another 
alloy, called Bath metal. 

10 pounds of tin, 6 pounds of copper, 4 pounds 
of brass, constitute white solder. 

14.75 tin, 144 copper, and 12 brass, is the alloy 
of the English standard measure. 

JIanlicim Gold. — 3 parts copper, 1 part zinc, 
and a small quantity of tin. If these metals 
are pure, and melted in a covered crucible, contain- 
ing charcoal, the alloy bears so close a resemblance 
to gold as to deceive very skilful persons. 

Best Pinc7ibcckj 5 ounces pure copper, and 1 of 
zinc. 



ALLOYS. 61 

Princess Metal. — 3 parts copper, 1 part common 
brass, and J ounce zinc. 

5J pounds copper, J pound zinc, best Tombac, 
beautifully red, and is more durable than copper. 

Artificial Gold. — 16 parts virgin platina, 7 parts 
copper, 1 part zinc, put in a crucible, covered with 
powdered charcoal, and melted till the whole forms 
one mass. 

t 

Fine Brazing Solder. — 12 pounds of copper, 11 
pounds of zinc, flux with powdered brimstone. 



We might multiply these examples of the differ- 
ent mixtures, but as we have already extended this 
portion of our article to a considerable length, and 
have given what appear to be the best for general 
purposes, we shall defer any further remarks on the 
subject, until we come to white metals, receipts, &c, 
at the latter part of the work. 
6 



69 REMARKS. 



Having discussed the rationale of the mixture 

and proportion of the metals used in alloys of cop- 
per, the matter leads us to the further consideration 

of casting them. Brass moulding is carried on by 
means of earthen, or sand moulds. The formation 
of sand moulds is by no means so simple an affair 
as it would at first sight appear to be, as it requires 
long practical experience to overcome the disadvan- 
tages attendant upon the material used. The moulds 
must be sufficiently strong to withstand the action 
of the fluid metal perfectly, and, at the same time, 
must be so far pervious to the air as to permit of 
the egress of the gases formed by the action of the 
metal on the sand. If the material were perfectly 
air-tight, then damage would ensue from the pres- 
sure arising from the rapidity of the generation of 
the gases, which would spoil the effect of the casting, 
and probably do serious injury to the operator. 

If the gases are locked up within the mould, the 
general result is what moulders term a blown cast- 
ing : that i^, its surface becomes filled with bubbles 
of air. rendering its texture porous and weak, besides 
injuring its appearance. 

Plaster of Paris is often used for a number of the 



FACING. G3 

more fusible metals. This material, however, will 
not answer for the more refractory ones, as the 
heat causes it to crumble away and lose its shape. 

Sand, mixed with clay or loam, possesses advan- 
tages not to be found in gypsum, and is consequently 
used in place of it, for brass and other alloys. In 
the formation of brass moulds, old damp sand is 
principally used in preference to the fresh material, 
being much less adhesive, and allowing the patterns 
to leave the moulds easier and cleaner. 

Meal dust or flour is used for facing the moulds 
of small articles ; but for larger works, powdered 
chalk, wood-ashes, &c, are used, as being more eco- 
nomical. 

If particularly fine work is required, a facing of 
charcoal or rottenstone is applied. Another plan 
for giving a fine surface is to dry the moulds over 
a slow fire of cork shavings, or other carbonaceous 
substance, which deposits a fine thin coating of car- 
bon. This, when good fine facing-sand is not to be 
obtained. 

As regards the proportions of sand and loam used 
in the formation of the moulds, it is to be remarked, 
that the greater the quantity of the former material, 
the more easily will the gases escape, and the less 



64 METALLIC MOULDS. 

likelihood is there of a failure of the casting ; on 
the other hand, if the latter substance predominates, 
the impression of the pattern will be better, but a 
far greater liability of injury to the casting will be 
incurred from the impermeable nature of the mould- 
ing material. This however may be got over with- 
out the slightest risk, by well drying the mould 
prior to casting, as you would have to do were the 
mould entirely of loam. 

For some works, where easily fusible metal is 
used, metallic moulds are adopted. Thus, where 
great quantities of one particular species of casting 
is required, the metallic mould is cheaper, easier of 
management, and possesses the advantage of pro- 
ducing any number of exactly similar copies. The 
simplest example which we can adduce is the cast- 
ing of bullets. These are cast in moulds constructed 
like scissors, or pliers, the jaws or nipping portions 
being each hollowed out hemispherically, so that 
when closed a complete hollow sphere is formed, 
having a small aperture leading into the centre of 
the division line, by which the molten lead is poured 
in. 

Pewter pots, inkstands, printing types, and va- 
rious other articles, composed of the easily fusible 
metals, or their compounds, are moulded on the 



PEWTERING. (15 

same principle. The pewterer generally uses brass 
moulds : they are heated previous to pouring in the 
metal. In order to cause the casting to leave the 
mould easier, as well as to give a finer face to the 
article, the mould is brushed thinly over with red 
ochre and white of an egg ; in some cases, a thin 
film of oil is used instead. 

Many of the moulds for this purpose are extremely 
complex, and, being made in several pieces, they 
require great care in fitting. 

With these peculiar cases we have, at present, 
little to do, and shall conclude with a few observa- 
tions on the method of filling the moulds. The 
experienced find that the proper time for pouring 
the metal is indicated by the wasting of the zinc, 
which gives off a lambent flame from the surface of 
the melted metal. The moment this is observed, 
the crucible is to be removed from the fire, in order 
to avoid incurring a great waste of this volatile sub- 
stance. The metal is then to be immediately poured. 
The best temperature for pouring, is that at which 
it will take the sharpest impression and yet cool 
quickly. If the metal is very hot, and remains long 
in contact with the mould, what is called sand-burn- 
ing takes place, and the face of the casting is in- 
jured. 

G* 



Of, COMPLEX OBJECTS. 

The founder, then, must rely on his own judgment, 
as to what is the lowest heat at which good, sharp 
impressions will be produced. As a rule, the smallest 
and thinnest castings must be cast the first in a 
pouring, as the metal cools quickest in such cases, 
while the reverse holds good with regard to larger 
ones. 

Complex objects, when inflammable, are occasion- 
ally moulded in brass, and some other of the fusible 
metals, by an extremely ingenious process; render- 
ing what otherwise would be a difficult problem a 
comparatively easy matter. 

The mould, which it must be understood is to be 
composed of some inflammable material, is to be 
placed in the sand-flask, and the moulding sand 
filled in gradually until the box is filled up. "When 
dry, the whole is placed in an oven sufficiently hot 
to reduce the mould to ashes, which are easily re- 
moved from their hollow, when the metal may be 
poured in. In this way (as will be afterwards shown) 
small animals, birds, or vegetables may be cast with 
the greatest facility. 

The animal is to be placed in the empty moulding- 
box, being held in the exact position required, by 
suitable wires or strings, which may be burnt or 
removed, previous to pouring in the metal. 



ON BELL FOUNDING. 67 

Another mode which appears to be founded on 
the same principle, answers perfectly well when the 
original model is moulded in wax. The model is 
placed in the moulding-box in the manner detailed 
in the last process, having an additional piece of 
wax to represent the runner for the metal. The 
composition here used for moulding is similar to 
that employed by statue founders in forming the 
cores for statues, busts, &c, namely, two parts 
brick-dust to one of plaster of Paris. This is mixed 
with water and poured in so as to surround the 
model well. The whole is then slowly dried, and 
when the mould is sufficiently hardened to withstand 
the effects of the molten wax, it is warmed, in order 
to liquify and pour it out. When clear of the wax, 
the mould is dried and buried in sand, in order to 
sustain it against the action of the fluid metal. 

If our limits permitted, we might mention the de- 
tails of numerous other works in the founding of 
brass. We must for the present content ourselves 
with a brief examination of one or two cases which 
come more or less within the province of the engi- 
neer. One of these is the founding of bells, a sub- 
ject of considerable interest, as works of this kind 
are often of very considerable magnitude, and de- 
mand the skilful attention of the engineer. Large 



03 ON CUX FOUNDING. 

bslla are usually cast in loam moulds, being swept 
up, according to the founder's phraseology, by 
means of wooden or metal patterns, "whose contour 
is an exact representation of the inner and outer 
surfaces of the intended bell. Sometimes, indeed, 
the whole exterior of the bell is moulded in wax, 
which serves as a model to form the impression in 
the sand, the wax being melted out previous to 
pouring in the metal. This plan is rarely pursued, 
and is only feasible when the casting is small. 

The inscriptions, ornaments, scrolls, fee., usually 
found on bells, are put on the clay mould separately, 
being moulded in wax or clay, and stuck on while 
soft. The same plan is pursued with regard to the 
ears, or supporting lugs, by which the bell is hung. 



BRASS (.UN'S 

Auk another important branch of this manufac- 
ture. They are moulded in a manner quite distinct 
from any other work of this nature. The exterior 

to 

surface of the gun is produced by wrapping gaskin 
or soft rope round a tapered rod, of a length slightly 



ON GUN FOUNDING. 69 

greater than that of the gun. Upon this foundation 
of rope the moulding loam is then applied ; the 
surface being turned to the exact shape and propor- 
tions of the gun. 

A long fire is used by the founder in this process, 
in order to dry the mould as he proceeds in its 
manufacture. When perfectly dry, the surface of 
the mould is black-washed over, and again covered 
with loam to a depth of two or three inches. This 
exterior coat of loam is secured and strengthened 
by a number of iron bands, and the whole is well 
dried. The primary mould is now completely with- 
drawn from the outer shell, the formation of which 
rendors it an easy matter, as the timber rod leaves 
the rope with great facility, when the latter may 
be withdrawn, and the clay covering picked out 
afterwards. 

The trunnions of the gun are formed separately, 
and attached to the shell in the ordinary way. 
When finished, the moulds are sunk perpendicu- 
larly in a sand pit, near a reverberatory furnace, a 
vertical runner being made, leading to each mould, 
which it enters near the bottom. A suitable chan- 
nel communicates with the furnace containing the 
brass intended for the guns. The metal being iu- 



70 ON FIGURE CASTING. 

troduced at the bottom of the mould, no air can 
possibly be detained by its entrance, as each mould 
is full open to the atmosphere at the top. 



FIGURE CASTING 

Is another branch of our subject, and one which, 
from its general complexity, ranks as the greatest 
effort of the founder. As an example of this pro- 
cess we shall take the moulding of thin ornaments 
in relief. 

The ornament, whatever it may be, a monumental 
bas-relief for instance, is first modelled in relief, in 
clay or wax, upon a flat surface. A -sand flask is 
then placed upon the board, over the model, and 
well rammed with sand, which thus takes the im- 
press of the model on its lower surface. A second 
flask is now laid on the sunken impression, and also 
filled with sand, in order to take the relief impres- 
sion from it. This is generally termed the cope, or 
back mould. The thickness of the intended cast is 
then determined by placing an edging of clay round 
the lower flask, upon which edging the upper one 
rests, thus keeping the two surfaces at the precise 



ON FIGURE CASTING. 71 

distance from each other, that it is intended the 
thickness of the casting shall be. 

In this process, the metal is economised to the 
greatest possible extent, as the interior surface, or 
back of the casting, is an exact representation of 
the relief of the subject ; and the whole is thus made 
as thin in every part as the strength of the metal 
permits. 

Several modifications of the process just described 
are also made use of, to suit the particular circum- 
stances of the case. What we have said, however, 
is a detail cf the principle pursued in all matters of 
a similar nature. In conclusion we will give a com- 
position for cores that may be required for difficult 
jobs, where it would be extremely expensive to make 
a core-box for the same : — 

Make a pattern (of any material that will stand 
moulding from) like unto the core required. Take 
a mould from the same in the sand, in the ordinary 
way ; place strengthening wires from point to point, 
centrally ; gate and close your flask. Then make a 
composition of two parts brick-dust and one part 
plaster of Paris ; mix with water and cast. Take it 
out when set, dry it, and place it in your mould 
warm, so that there may be no cold air in it. 



7J BRASS MIRRORS, ETC. 



BRASS MIRRORS.* 

An Etruscan mirror, placed in the hands of 
" Gerharht of Berlin, " was found to consist, in 100 
parts, of 67.12 copper, 24.93 tin, 8.13 lead ; ap- 
proximating closely to an alloy of 8 parts copper, 
3 of tin, and 1 of lead. The oxide of tin obtained 
in the course of analysis was carefully examined 
before the blow-pipe for antimony, but he saw no 
trace o( that metal. 

A similar mirror has been analysed by"Klap- 
foth." He found G2 per cent, copper, 32 tin, and 
6 per cent. lead. 



Copper. — Copper is thick and pasty, and without 
some alloy will not run into the cavities and sinu- 
osities of the mould. 

Metals. — A quarter of a grain of lead will render 
an ounce of gold perfectly brittle, although neither 
gold or lead are brittle metals. 

* See Job, xxxvii. IS; Exodus, xxxviii. 8. 



SURFACE OF METALS, ETC. 73 

Surface of Metals. — The surface of metals should 
be carefully defended, while in the fluid state, from 
the action of the atmosphere, by a stratum of wax, 
pitch, or resin, if the fusing point be low ; or by a 
layer of salt, powdered glass, borax, charcoal, &c, 
if it is high. 

Blanched Copper. — 8 ounces of copper, and \ an 
ounce of neutral arsenical salt, fused together under 
a flux of calcined borax and pounded glass, to which 
charcoal powder is added, makes blanched copper. 

British Weapons and Tools in Bronze, anciently 
called Corinthian and Syracuse Brass. — The metal 
of which the British weapons and tools were made, 
has been chemically analysed in modern times, and 
the proportions appear to be — 

In a spear head, 1 part of tin to 6 parts of copper. 
In an axe head, 1 do. 10 do. 

In a knife, 1 do. 7J do. 



ON BRASS. 



ON BRASS. 

In Germany brass appears to have been made 
for centuries before the manufacture was introduced 
into England. This is stated to have been done by 
a German, who worked at Esher, in Surrey, in the 
year 1649. The analysis of a few pieces of bronze, 
of undoubted antiquity, namely, a helmet with an 
inscription (found at Delphi, and now in the British 
Museum), some nails from the treasury of Atreus, 
at My cense, an ancient Corinthian coin, and a por- 
tion of a breast-plate, or cuirass, of exquisite work- 
manship (also in the British Museum), affords about 
87 to 88 parts copper to about 12 to 13 tin, per 
cent. 

The experiments of Klaproth and others give 
nearly the same results as to ingredients ; the quan- 
tities sometimes slightly differ. Lead is contained 
in some specimens, as has been shown. Zinc, and 
the nature of it, as heretofore observed, was not 
known to the ancients. 

In an antique sword, found many years ago, in 



CASTING IN PLASTER. 75 

France, the proportions in 100 parts were, 87.47 
copper, 12.53 tin, with a small portion of lead, not 
worth noticing. 



METHOD OF CASTING IN PLASTER — MEDALLIONS, ETC. 

Obtain some fine plaster, of good colour, and 
pass it through a muslin sieve, to remove any coarser 
particles which may be present. By mixing gum 
arable with the water intended to be used in the 
plaster, not only will the plaster be rendered very 
hard when it sets, but a beautiful gloss will be given 
to the surface. Care must be taken to drop the 
plaster powder gradually into the water, and to per- 
mit the bubbles to rise before the mixture is stirred ; 
otherwise it will become lumpy. The plaster should 
be of the consistence of the yolk of an egg, and, of 
course, used immediately. If the medal intended 
to be copied is a valuable one, with a smooth surface, 
it will be advisable not to oil it, as, in cleaning the 
oil off, the polish may be injured; but if the 
surface be rough there will be no remedy, and the 
oil must afterwards be removed, by dabbing the sur- 
face of the medal gently with a soft cloth. 



70 CASTING IN PLASTER. 

A rim of thin load, brass, copper, or even oiled 
paper, is then tied round the medal, and some liquid 
plaster, in the first place, stippled over its surface 
with a soft brush, to prevent the formation of air 
bubbles, as well as to insure its insertion into the 
most minute crevices ; after which the plaster is 
poured upon the surface to the thickness of half an 
inch, or an inch if a large medal. 

To separate the mould from the medal, all we 
have to do is to immerse it in water, when it is 
readily removed ; otherwise the mould is sure to be 
broken. 

To obtain a plaster cast from this mould, we must 
oil it with warm boiled Unseed oil, and allow it seve- 
ral days to dry. Whenever the mould is used it 
must be well oiled ; otherwise the surface of the 
casting will be destroyed. The best olive oil must 
be used, or the colour of the plaster will be injured 



TRANSFERRING AND VARNISHING. 77 



TO TRANSFER ENGRAVINGS TO PLASTER CASTS. 

Cover the plate with ink, and polish its surface 
in the usual way ; then put your rim round it, as 
before stated, and pour in your plaster, mixed as 
before. Jerk the plate repeatedly, to allow the 
air bubbles to fly upwards, and let it stand one hour; 
then take the cast off the plate, and a very perfect 
impression will be the result 



TO VARNISH PLASTER CASTS. 

Plaster casts are varnished by a mixture of soap 
and white wax in boiling water. A quarter of an 
ounce of soap is dissolved in a pint of water, and 
an equal quantity of wax afterwards incorporated. 
The cast is dipped in this liquid, and, after drying 
a week, is polished, by rubbing with soft linen, pro- 
ducing a polish like marble. If to be exposed to 
the weather, saturate them with linseed oil mixed 
7* 



78 CONCAVE AND CONVEX MOULDS. 

with wax, or rosin may be combined. In casting 
the plaster, always use spring ivater and gum 
arable. 



TO CAST CONCAVE OR CONVEX MOULDS OF MEDALS, 
ON "TIN-FOIL/' WITH PLASTER. 

Take a medal, &c, and cover it with very thin 
" tin-foil," which press as close to the medal as you 
can ; go over every part with a brush, laying on 
tolerably hard, in order to press the tin-foil into 
every cavity of the medal. After which, you may 
pour plaster upon it, and, when it is hard, take the 
medal out, leaving the tin-foil in the plaster ; then, 
with a little fine olive oil, anoint the tin-foil, and 
the plaster where it must part, and pour more plas- 
ter upon the tin-foil, which also let harden. You 
may then separate them, and take out the tin-foil, 
and you will have both a concave and a convex 
mould. 



CASTING COMPLEX OBJECTS. 79 



TO CAST VEGETABLES, INSECTS, SMALL BIRDS, FROGS, 
FISH, ETC., IN PLASTER MOULDS. 

Provide a trough of boards, nailed together so 
as not to let the water run through the joints. Sus- 
pend in the trough, by thread or Holland twine, 
in several places, the vegetable, plant, insect, &c, 
which you would cast, which being performed, mix 
four parts of plaster of Paris, and two parts of fine 
brick-dust, with common water, to the consistence 
of cream, and with this cover the thing intended to 
be cast, observing not to distort it, by any means, 
from its natural position. When you have filled 
your trough, let it harden by placing it near the fire 
by degrees till you can make it red hot. Then let 
it cool, and, with a pair of bellows, blow and shake 
as much of the ashes out of the mould as you can. 
You must now put a small quantity of quicksilver 
into the mould, and shake it, in order to loosen 
every part of the ashes therein ; also to make a 
passage through where the strings were tied, in 
order to let the air out when you pour in your 
metal. 



80 FUSIBLE METALS. 



TO TREPARE A METAL FOR THE ABOVE WORK. 

Take of grain tin 6 ounces, bismuth 2 ounces ; 
and lead 3 ounces. Melt them together in an iron 
ladle, and you may cast in the above mould to your 
satisfaction. 



You may combine the above ingredients in such 
proportions as to compose a metal that will melt in 
boiling water. Thus, 

Sir Isaac Newton s Fusible Metal is composed of 
8 parts bismuth, 5 parts lead, and 3 parts tin. This 
alloy melts at 212°. 

Roses Alloy is still more fusible : it is 2 parts 
bismuth, 1 lead, and 1 tin, and melts at 201°. 

The late Dr. Dalton's Fusible Alloy. — 3 parts 
tin, 5 parts lead, and 10J parts bismuth ; melts at 
197°. The addition of a little mercury makes it 
more fusible, and fits it to be used as a coating to 
the insides of glass globes. 



CASTING IN WAX. 81 

An alloy of equal parts of tin and bismuth melts 
at 280°. A less proportion of bismuth adds to the 
hardness of tin, and hence its use in the formation 
of pewter, or pewter solder. 



TO CAST IN WAX. 

The mould is first made in plaster, but before 
being used it is placed in warm water, of which it is 
allowed to absorb as much as it will take — oil not 
being used in this process. The surface must then 
be allowed to dry, or the wax would not adhere 
closely. Pure wax is too greasy for the purpose, 
and bladder flake-white is therefore mixed with it ; 
the quantity cannot be stated ; but the addition of 
too much gives wax the appearance of plaster, by 
taking away its richness. The oftener the wax is 
remelted, the more its colour is injured. 

In order to obtain a gray marble colour, a marble 
powder, procurable at any statuary, is mixed with 
the wax, which not only gives a beautiful appearance 
to it, but renders it more durable. 

The wax is poured into the mould and allowed to 



82 CASTING IN SULPHUR. 

flow over its surface, and by moistening the plaster 
mould in water when the wax has become hard, the 
cast is easiiy removed. Wax models may be fastened 
by means of linseed oil and flake-white, and also by 
a combination of bees' wax and resin. 



TO CAST IN SULPHUR. 

This is a very permanent mode, but as a mould 
it can only be used for plaster ; for hot wax or sul- 
phur would injure its surface. When sulphur is 
heated to the temperature suitable for forming casts, 
it becomes nearly black, and has, therefore, to be 
coloured in the proportion of one ounce of Vermil- 
lion to three ounces of sulphur. The surface of the 
mould, however, need only be coated with this 
expensive mixture, and common sulphur in any 
quantity. 

You must use wood to stir the sulphur, as iron 
will take away its colour. The sulphur will take 
fire in melting, unless it is properly stirred, and at 
first will become thick and viscid, but by continuing 
the application of heat, it will again assume a per- 
fectly liquid form. 



CASTING IN GLUE. 83 



TO CAST IN GLUE. 

If a medal is so much sunk and engraved that 
you cannot get a plaster cast off, a mould may be 
obtained by pouring glue upon it. In this manner 
a bunch of grapes can be taken in the natural state, 
and by cutting the glue down the centre, the grapes 
can be extracted, and the mould used to produce a 
representation of the original in plaster. Isinglass 
may be similarly used, but it is first mixed with 
flake-white, in the state of powder. When the 
plaster is hard, place the whole in boiling water, 
when the glue will melt away, leaving a perfect cast 
of plaster grapes. 



TO MAKE A FINE GLUE, WHEREWITH YOU MAT CAST 
CURIOUS MEDALS. 

Steep isinglass in brandy, and when it is dis- 
solved boil it together with water, and pour it over 
any medal, and when dry it will appear perfect. It 



84 CASTING IN BREAD PASTE. 

must be of a tolerably thick consistence, much like 
common glue. 



TO CAST IN BREAD PASTE. 

Take the inside of fresh bread, and work it up 
well with vermillion — the longer the better, until it 
becomes viscid and tough. It is then to be worked 
well into the mould. After having obtained the 
mould, it must be fastened down upon a piece of 
wood, by wetting it so as to prevent it from warp- 
ing as it dries. After it has been thoroughly dried 
you may oil it, and then obtain as many casts as 
you please from it, in plaster, wax, or sulphur. 

By means of bread-paste a traveller may always 
take a model of any small object of interest he 
meets with on his journey; and thus a proper 
knowledge of its mode of use becomes invaluable. 
Scrolls, ruins of tombs and temples, &c, have often 
thus been copied and brought home at a trifling cost. 



CASTING IN ISINGLASS AND RICE GLUE. 85 



TO CAST FIGURES IN IMITATION OF IVORY. 

Make isinglass and strong brandy into a paste 
with powder of egg-shells, well ground. You may 
make it whatever colour you please, but cast warm 
water into your mould, which should be previously 
well oiled over. Leave the figure in the mould to 
dry; and on taking it out it will be found to bear a 
strong resemblance to ivory. 



RICE GLUE STATUARY. 

Mix rice flour intimately with cold water, and 
gently simmer it over the fire, when it readily forms 
a delicate and durable cement, not only answering 
the purpose of common paste, but admirably adapted 
to join together paper, card, &c. When made of 
the consistence of plastic clay, models, busts, basso- 
relievos, &c, may be formed ; and the articles when 
dry are very like white marble, and will take a high 
polish, being very durable. In this manner the 
8 



86 COMPOSITION FOR ORNAMENTS. 

Chinese and Japanese make many of their domestic 
idols. Any colouring matter may be used at plea- 
sure. 



A COMPOSITION FOR ORNAMENTS. 

Take pounded chalk, what quantity you please, 
add thereto as much thin glue as will make it into 
paste, which mix well together. Then put it into 
moulds, being a little oiled, and press it well in ; 
after which take it out, and it will grow as hard as 
stone. 

You must make no more of it than you want for 
present use; if left it grows hard, and cannot be 
used again. 



ON ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 87 



ALLOYS, AMALGAMS, ETC. 

The formation of alloys appears to depend upon 
the chemical affinity of the metals for each other, 
and in some instances it seems to he wanting, for no 
combination occurs. Thus, according to Gellert, 
bismuth and zinc do not combine. 

The change of properties which metals undergo 
by combining, furnishes strong evidence of its aris- 
ing from chemical affinity and action. Thus, with 
respect to colour, copper, a reddish-coloured metal, 
by union with zinc, which is a white one, gives the 
well known "yellow alloy brass." 

The fusing point of a mixed metal, is never the 
mean of the temperature at which its constituents 
melt, and it is generally lower than that of the most 
fusible metal of the alloy. 

Alloy is a word used to designate either a natural 
or artificial compound of two or more metals ; ex- 
cept when mercury is one of them ; the mixture is 
then termed an amalgam. 

The natural alloys are far less important sub- 
stances than those which are artificially procured. 
Thus arsenic occurs combined with the following 



88 NATIVE ALLOYS, ETC. 

metals, namely, antimony, bismuth, cobalt, iron, 
nickel, and silver. 

There is also found a native alloy of antimony 
and nickel, and of antimony, cobalt, and nickel ; 
others might be mentioned ; but there is no instance 
of a native alloy, strictly speaking, being applied to 
any useful purpose. Whereas, the artificial alloys, 
as has been fully shown, are of the highest import- 
ance, both for the uses of common life, and for manu- 
facturing purposes. By uniting different metals, 
compounds are formed, which possess a combination 
of qualities not occurring in any one metal. 

Platina is always used in a pure state, and cop- 
per, iron, lead, and zinc, are also very commonly so 
used. But gold, silver, tin, antimony, and bismuth, 
are, as we have shown, generally alloyed ; the first 
three on account of their softness, and the two latter 
because they are extremely brittle. Gold and silver 
are hardened by alloying with copper; copper is 
hardened by zinc, tin, &c, &c. 

All alloys formed of brittle metals are brittle; 
those made of ductile metals are in some cases duc- 
tile and in others brittle. When the proportions 
are nearly equal, there are as many alloys which 
are brittle as ductile — but when any of the metals 
is in excess they are most commonly ductile. In 



DENSITY OF METALS. 89 

combining ductile and brittle metals, the compounds 
are brittle if the brittle metal exceed, or nearly 
equal the proportion of the ductile one ; but when 
the ductile metal greatly exceeds the brittle one, 
the alloys are usually ductile. 

The density of alloys sometimes exceeds, and in 
other cases is less than that which would result from 
calculation. The following alloys afford examples 
of "increased and diminished density:" — 



Increased Density. 

Gold and Zinc. 
Gold and Tin. 
Gold and Bismuth. 
Gold and Antimony. 
Gold and Cobalt. 
Silver and Tin. 
Silver and Bismuth. 
Silver and Antimony. 
Silver and Zinc. 
Silver and Lead. 
Copper and Zinc. 
Copper and Tin. 
Copper and Palladium. 
8* 



Diminished Density. 

Gold and Silver. 
Gold and Iron. 
Gold and Lead. 
Gold and Copper. 
Gold and Iridium. 
Gold and Nickel. 
Silver and Copper. 
Iron and Bismuth. 
Iron and Antimony. 
Iron and Lead. 
Tin and Lead. 
Tin and Palladium. 
Tin and Antimony. 



90 BRONZE, BELL, AND SPECULUM METALS. 

Increased Density. Diminished Density. 

Copper and Bismuth. Nickel and Arsenic. 
Copper and Antimony. Zinc and Antimony. 
Lead and Bismuth. 
Lead and Antimony. 
Platina and Molybdenum. 
Palladium and Bismuth. 

Not only are the properties of metals altered by 
combination, but different proportions of the same 
metals produce very different alloys. Thus, by 
combining 90 parts of copper with 10 parts of tin, an 
alloy is obtained of greater density than the mean 
of the metals ; and it is also harder and more fusible 
than the copper ; it is slightly malleable when slowly 
cooled ; but, on the contrary, when heated to red- 
ness and plunged into cold water, it is very malle- 
able. This compound is known by the name of 
bronze. 

Again, as has been previously laid down, if 80 
parts of copper be combined with 20 parts of tin, 
the compound is the extremely sonorous one, called 
he 11 metal. 

An alloy consisting of two-thirds copper, and 
one-third tin, is susceptible of a very fine polish, 
and is used as speculum metal. 



COMBINATION AND CHEMICAL ACTION. 91 

It is curious to observe in these alloys, that in 
bronze, the density and hardness of the denser and 
harder metal are increased, by combining with a 
lighter and softer one ; while, as might be expected, 
the fusibility of the more refractory metal is in- 
creased by uniting with a more fusible metal. In 
bell metal, the copper becomes more sonorous by 
combination with a metal which is less so. These 
changes are clear indications of chemical action. 

It has been already observed that the natural 
alloys, considered as such, are not important bodies. 
The only one, if indeed that may be reckoned so, 
is the alloy of iron and nickel, constituting meteoric 
iron, and of which the knives of the Esquimaux 
appear to be made. 

The artificial metallic alloys are of the highest 
degree of utility. Thus, gold is too soft a metal to 
be used either for the purposes of coin or ornament ; 
it is therefore alloyed with copper. Silver, though 
harder than gold, would also wear too quickly unless 
mixed with copper ; and copper is improved both in 
hardness and colour by combination with zinc and 
tin, forming brass and bronze. 



« 



TABLE OF YELLOW BRASS. 



YELLOW BRASS. 

Trw: h>liowh\g tabic exhibits the composition of 
several varieties of this species of brass. No. 1 is 
a cast brass, of uncertain origin. No. - is the brass 
of Jemappes. No. 8 is the sheet -brass of Stolberg, 
near Aix-la-Chapelle. No. 4 and 5, the brass for 
gilding, according to De Arcet. No. G, the sheet- 
brass of Romilly. No. 7, English brass-wire. No. 
8, Augsburg brass-wire. No. 9, the brass-wire of 
Neustadt, Eberswald, in the neighbourhood of 
Berlin. 



Motul. 


Not. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


No. :>. 


No. 6. 


No. 7. 


No. B, 


No.D. 1 


Copper . 

/.inr. . . 

Lead . • 
Tin . . . 


61.6 

85.3 

2.9 

0.2 


64.6 

83.7 

1.4 

0.2 


04. S 
32.8 

■:.o 

0.4 


63.70 t'4.4;> 

;'>■_'. 44 

0.26 2.86 

0.50 1 0.26 


70.1 
29.9 


T0.29 

29.26 
0.28 

0.17 


71. SO 

27.68 
0.85 


70.10 

•J7.4;> 

0.20 

0.70 




100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 
nearly 



COPPER MEDALS AND MEDALLIONS. 93 



TO MAKE COPPER MEDALS AND MEDALLIONS. 

Let black oxide of copper, in a fine powder, be 
reduced to the metallic state, by exposing it to a 
stream of hydrogen in a gun-barrel heated barely 
to redness. The metallic powder thus obtained is 
to be sifted through crape upon the surface of the 
mould, to the thickness of a quarter or half an inch, 
and is then to be strongly pressed upon it, first by 
the hand, and lastly by percussion with a hammer. 
The impression thus formed is beautiful, but it ac- 
quires much more solidity by exposure to a red heat, 
out of contact with the air. Such medals are said 
to have more tenacity than melted copper, and to 
be sharply defined. This plan was discovered by 
M. Boettger, for which he was awarded the gold 
medal of the Society of Arts. 

An improvement on the above plan, whereby you 
may prepare the powder of copper more easily and of 
better quality, by precipitating a boiling hot solution 
of sulphate of copper, with pieces of zinc ; boiling 
the metallic powder, thus obtained, with dilute sul- 
phuric acid, for a little, to remove all traces of the 



94 CHEMICAL AFFINITY AND AMALGAMS. 

zinc or oxide ; washing it next with water, and dry- 
ing it in a tubulated retort by the heat of a water- 
bath, while a stream of hydrogen is passed over it. 
This cupreus precipitate possesses so energetic an 
affinity for oxygen, that it is difficult to prevent it 
passing into the state of orange oxide. 



AMALGAM. 

Amalgam, a compound of two or more metals, of 
which one is always mercury ; and this circumstance 
distinguishes an amalgam from an alloy. Nature 
presents us with only one amalgam, which is silver, 
and is termed by mineralogists "native amalgam." 
It occurs in Hungary, Sweden, &c, and is met with 
either semi-fluid, massive, or crystallized in rhombic 
dodecahedrons. Klaproth found it to consist of 64 
parts of mercury, and 36 of silver, out of 100 parts. 
Most metals may be amalgamated with mercury, 
and the combination appears to depend on chemical 
affinity. 

When the cohesion of a metal is slight, as in the 
cases of potassium and sodium ; or when its affinity 
for mercury is considerable, as in the instances of 



AMALGAMATION OF METALS. 95 

gold and silver, amalgamation takes place readily, 
by mere contact. When, on the other hand, the 
cohesion of a metal is strong or its affinity for mer- 
cury is weak, heat or intermediate action, or both, 
are requisite to effect amalgamation. 

If forty-four parts of mercury be mixed with one 
part of potassium, combination occurs with the evo- 
lution of much heat ; and when the resulting amal- 
gam is cold, it is hard and has the appearance of 
silver. When the quantity of mercury exceeds one 
hundred parts to one of potassium, the compound is 
liquid, and an amalgamation containing only 1.5 
per cent, of potassium is susceptible of crystalliza- 
tion. The density of an amalgam exceeds that of 
the mean of the metals ; this and the tendency of 
one or both metals to oxidize, are additional indica- 
tions of chemical combination. 

There are some metals, it has been observed, re- 
quiring heat to amalgamate them. Antimony offers 
an example of this : to effect combination it must be 
melted, and while liquid mixed with hot mercury. 
Mere heat, however, causes scarcely any action be- 
tween iron and mercury ; they may be amalgamated 
by mixing the filings of the metal with powdered 
alum, and rubbing them together in a mortar with 
a little water. After trituration, the alum may be 



96 AMALGAMATION OF METALS. 

washed out. By the intervention of tin or zinc, 
iron may be combined with mercury, and a double 
amalgam is formed. Platina also unites with mer- 
cury, by the intervention of the amalgam of potas- 
sium, but not by direct action. The double amalgam 
of iron and zinc does not rapidly undergo any 
change, and is not attracted by the magnet. All 
amalgams are decomposed by a red heat ; the mer- 
cury being distilled, and the more fixed metal re- 
maining. The process of amalgamation and decom- 
position is employed to separate gold and silver from 
their ores. The mercury obtained by decomposing 
the amalgams is distilled and repeatedly used for 
the same purpose, with comparatively little loss. 

The amalgams of gold and silver are used or em- 
ployed in the process of gilding and plating. We 
have also shown the amalgam of tin is largely used 
in what is called silvering mirrors, and that various 
amalgams of tin and zinc are employed for exciting 
electricity in the machine. 



ON BISMUTH. 97 



BISMUTH. 

At a high temperature this metal is volatil- 
ized ; may be distilled in close vessels, and solidi- 
fies in foliated crystals. If it be merely melted in 
a crucible, and cautiously cooled, it crystallizes in 
well-defined cubes. Bismuth, as met with in com- 
merce, is not pure, for it generally contains iron 
and arsenic. In order to purify it, it is to be dis- 
solved in nitric acid ; the solution is to be decom- 
posed by water, and the precipitate, after being 
boiled in a solution of soda, is to be mixed with 
black flux, and moderately heated in a crucible. 

Bismuth combines with copper to form a pale- 
red brittle alloy. It forms a brittle compound with 
silver ; and it has been proposed as a substitute for 
lead, in refining Silver. It is said to form a more 
fluid oxide, which penetrates the cupel more readily 
than that of lead;, and may also be used in smaller 
quantity. 

With mercury it forms a very fluid alloy, and 
makes the following metals brittle by combination : 
tungsten, palladium, rhodium, gold, and platina. 
9 



98 ON FRICTION. 

It is principally employed in making fusible alloys, 
and as an ingredient in solders. It is often called 
in the arts " tin glass." 



ON FRICTION. 

Friction is independent of the velocity : at least 
when the velocity is neither very great nor very 
small. With hard substances, such as wood, metal, 
and stone, the amount of friction is simply as the 
pressure, without regard to surface, time, or velocity. 
Friction is greatest with soft, and least with hard 
substances. The diminution of friction by unguents 
depends on the nature of the unguents, without re- 
ference to the substances moving over them. 

The following table shows the comparative amount 
of friction of different metals, under an average 
pressure of 54.25 pounds to 00.55 pounds. 



TABLE OF FRICTION. 



99 



Names of Metals, Tried. 


Average 
Weight. 


Proportions. 


Weight per 
Square Inch. 




lbs. 




lbs. oz. 


Brass on Wrought Iron . . 


69.55 


7.312 


11 12.4 


Steel upon Steel 


69.55 


6.860 


11 12.5 


Brass upon Cast Iron . . . 


54.25 


6.745 


8 0.5 




69.55 


6.592 


11 12.5 


Hard Brass upon Cast Iron 


54.25 


6.581 


6 15.9 


Wro't Iron upon Wro't Iron 


69.55 


6.561 


11 12.5 


Cast Iron upon Cast Iron . 


54.25 


6.475 


8 0.5 


Do. do. Steel . . . 


69.55 


6.393 


11 12.5 


Do. do. Wro't Iron 


69.55 


6.023 


11 12.5 




69.55 


5.764 


11 12.5 




69.55 


3.305 


11 12.5 



From hence it would appear that hard metals 
have less friction than soft ones ; and that the fric- 
tion of hard against hard may be generally estimated 
at about one-sixth of the pressure. 

Relative to unguents, Sir John Rennie's experi- 
ments show that for gun metal or cast iron, with oil 
intervening, and a weight of 1120 pounds, the fric- 
tion amounted to J.63 of the pressure ; but on 
diminishing the insistent weights the friction was 
cmninished to ^.33. 



IOC/ ON BELLS. 



BELLS. 



The large bells now used in churches, are said 
to have been invented by Taulinus, Bishop of Nola, 
in Campania, about the year 400 : whence the 
"Nola" and "Campania" of the lower Latinity. 
They were probably introduced into England very 
soon after their invention. They are first mentioned 
by Bede, about the close of the seventh century. 
Ingulphus records that Turketul, Abbot of Croy- 
land, who died about the year 890, gave a bell of a 
very large size to that abbey, which he named Guth- 
lac. His successor, Egelric, cast a ring of six 
others, to which he gave the names of Bartholomew, 
Bettelin, Turketul, Tatwine, Tega, and Bega. Baro- 
nius informs us that Pope John XIII., A. D. 968, 
consecrated a very large new cast bell, in the Late- 
ran Church, and gave it the name of John. The 
ritual for the baptizing of bells may be found in the 
Roman Pontificalc. 

The city of Nankin, in China, was anciently fa- 
mous for the largeness of its bells, as we learn from 
Father le Compte ; but they were afterwards far 
exceeded in size by those of the churches of Moscow 



ON FLUXES. 101 

A bell in the tower of St. Ivan's Church, in Mos- 
cow, weighed 127,836 English pounds, or 57 tons 
1 cwt. 1 qr. 16 pounds. A bell given by the Czar 
Boris Godunof to the Cathedral of Moscow, weighed 
288,000 pounds, or 128 tons 11 cwt. 1 qr. 20 lbs. 
And another, given by the Empress Anne, probably 
the largest in the known world, weighed 432,000 
pounds, or 192 tons 17 cwt. qrs. 26 pounds. 
According to Coxe (Travels in Russia, vol. 1, page 
322), the height of this last bell was 19 feet, the 
circumference at the bottom 63 feet 11 inches, and 
its greatest thickness 23 inches. The great bell of 
St. Paul's, London, weighs 12,000 pounds, and is 
9 feet in diameter. 

The largest bell in England, is " Great Tom, "of 
Christ Church, Oxford, which is 17,000 pounds 
weight. 



ON FLUXES. 

Black flux is made by mixing one part of 
powdered nitre with two parts of powdered argol, 
which is the commercial name for impure cream of 
tartar, or bitartrate of potash. 
9* 



102 ON FLUXES. 

This mixture is to be gradually thrown into a red- 
hot earthen crucible, so as to deflagrate it, taking 
care not to make the heat so high as to fuse the 
mixture. 

In this case, the nitric acid of the nitre is de- 
composed, its oxygen acts upon the carbon of the 
tartaric acid, carbonic acid is formed, and this unit- 
ing with the potash, both of the nitre and bitartrate, 
is converted into carbonate of potash. The whole 
of the carbon of the tartaric acid is not, however, 
so acted upon ; and the excess remains mixed with 
the carbonate of potash, in the state of finely divided 
charcoal. 

This flux should be immediately reduced to 
powder, and kept in a well stopped bottle ; other- 
wise it will become damp by the absorption of moist- 
ure, to which the carbonate of potash is subject. 
This flux is doubly useful ; the carbonate of potash 
combines with the earthy parts of the ore, such as 
silica and alumina, while the charcoal unites with 
the oxygen of the metallic oxides, and, carbonic 
acid being formed and expelled, the metal is reduced 
and melts. This flux is especially useful in the pro- 
cess of detecting arsenious acid, and reducing it to 
the metallic state. 

Argolj already described, is an impure bitartrate 



FUSING AND MELTING POINTS. 



103 



of potash, powdered and mixed with the pulverized 
substance to be reduced, and is sometimes advantage- 
ously used as a flux. Owing to the intimate mix- 
ture of the charcoal and potash in this flux, a good 
deal of potassium is evolved ; and upon the reduc- 
ing property of this metal, the reduction of the 
oxides of other metals frequently depends to a con 
siderable extent. 

Charcoal alone is, in the case of pure oxides, 
sometimes employed as a flux : thus, a crucible 
lined with charcoal is useful for the reduction of 
oxide of iron ; or the oxide may be mixed with char- 
coal. 

Sal-enixum, or the refuse from aquafortis, is an 
excellent flux for copper, &c. 



FUSING AND MELTING POINTS, ASCERTAINED BY M£ANS 
OF PROFESSOR DANIEL'S REGISTERED PYROMETER. 



Mercury, 
Tin, . , 
Bismuth, 
Lead, 
Zinc, . 



—39° Fahrenheit 
442° Crichton. 
497° do. 
612° do. 
773° Daniel. 



104 



tar nun OF METALS 



Antimony 


► % • 


. 809° Panic 


Silver, 


1 • • 


. 1873° do. 


Copper, . 


• • 


. 1996° do. 


Gold, . 


• • 


. 2016° do. 


Cast iron, . 


• 


, 2787° do. 



Bismuth is mentioned by Agrieola, about the year 
1529, a. p. It is of a reddish-white colour; its 

lustre is considerable, and its structure lamellated. 
It is so brittle as to be easily reducible to powder. 

When eold, its density is 9.83. It melts at 462°j 
according to Crighton, jr. ; Irving, 476° ; Daniel, 
497°. Thus even doctors disagree. Probably, 
however, the specimens experimented upon might 
have slightly varied as to quality — the reader is 
furnished with all the faets. 



Vl.VlPITY. 



ACCORDING to Dr. Irving, the undermentioned 
bodies contain the annexed quantities o( heat when 
rendered tluid: — 



ANTI-FRICTION METALS. 105 

Lead, 162° Fahrenheit. 

Zinc, 493° do. 

Tin, 500° do. 

Bismuth, .... 550° do. 



ANTI-FRICTION METALS. 

Many use 9 and 10 parts tin to 1 part copper. 

A superior composition to either of the above is, 
1 part copper, 1 part regulus of antimony, to 10 
parts of tin. Melt the copper first, then add the 
antimony, with a small portion of tin ; cover up the 
whole with charcoal for a short time prior to cast- 
ing ; add the remainder of the tin. These composi- 
tions are solely used for lining brass bearings. 

The following is an excellent anti-friction metal, 
not used for linings, but used in castings instead of 
brass : namely, 85 parts zinc, 10 parts tin, to which 
is added 5 parts of antimony. 



(106) 



TAULE FOR CONVERTING DECIMAL PROPORTIONS INTO DIVISIONS 
OF THE POUND AVOIRDUPOIS. 



Decimal. 


oz. dr. 


Decimal. 


oz. 


dr. 


Decimal. 


oz. 


dr. 


Decimal. 


oz. dr. 


.39 


1 


12.89 


2 


1 


25.39 


4 


1 


37.85 


6 1 


.78 


2 


13.28 


2 


2 


35.78 


4 


2 


38:28 


6 2 


1.17 


3 


13.67 


2 


3 


26.17 


4 


3 


38.67 


6 3 


1.56 


4 


14.06 


2 


4 


26.56 


4 


4 


39.06 


6 4 


1.95 


5 


14.45 


2 


5 


26.95 


4 


5 


39.45 


6 5 


2.34 


6 


14.84 


2 


6 


27.34 


4 


6 


39.84 


6 6 


2.73 


7 


15.23 


2 


7 


27.73 


4 


7 


40.23 


6 7 


3.13 


8 


15.62 


2 


8 


28.13 


4 


8 


40.62 


6 8 


3.52 


9 


16.01 


2 


9 


28.52 


4 


9 


41.02 


6 9 


3.91 


10 


16.41 


2 


10 


28.91 


4 


10 


41.41 


6 10 


4.30 


11 


16.80 


2 


11 


29.30 


4 


11 


41.79 


6 11 


4.69 


12 


17.19 


2 


12 


29.69 


4 


12 


42.19 


6 12 


5.08 


13 


17.58 


2 


13 


30.08 


4 


13 


42.54 


6 13 


5.47 


14 


17.97 


2 


14 


30.47 


4 


14 


42.97 


6 14 


5.86 


15 


18.36 


2 


15 


30.86 


4 


15 


43.36 


6 15 


6.25 


1 


18.75 


3 





31.25 


5 





43.75 


7 


6.64 


1 1 


19.14 


3 


1 


81.64 


5 


1 


44.14 


7 1 


7.03 


1 2 


19.53 


3 


2 


32.03 


5 


2 


44.53 


7 2 


7.42 


1 3 


19.92 


3 


3 


32.42 


5 


3 


44.92 


7 3 


7.81 


1 4 


20.31 


3 


4 


32.81 


5 


4 


45.31 


7 4 


8.20 


1 5 


20.70 


3 


5 


33.20 


5 


5 


45.70 


7 5 


8.59 


1 G 


21.09 


3 


6 


33.59 


5 


6 


46.09 


7 6 


8.98 


1 7 


21.48 


3 


7 


33.98 


5 


7 


46.48 


7 7 


9.38 


1 8 


21.88 


3 


8 


34.37 


5 


8 


46.87 


7 8 


9.77 


1 9 


22.27 


3 


9 


34.69 


5 


9 


47.27 


7 9 


10.16 


1 10 


22^66 


3 


10 


35.16 


5 


10 


47.66 


7 10 


10.55 


1 11 


23.05 


3 


11 


35.55 


5 


11 


48.05 


7 11 


10.94 


1 12 


23.44 


3 


12 


35.94 


5 


12 


48.44 


7 12 


11.33 


1 13 


23.83 


o 

o 


13 


36.33 


5 


13 


48.83 


7 13 


11.72 


1 14 


24.22 


3 


14 


36.71 


5 


14 


49.22 


7 14 


12.10 


1 15 


24.61 


3 


15 


37.11 


5 


15 


49.61 


7 15 


12.50 


2 


25.00 


4 





37.50 


6 





50.00 


8 ' 



Application of the Table. 
The Chinese Packfong, similar to our German silver, accord 
ing to Dr. Fyfe's analysis, page 108, is said to consist of — 
40.4 parts of Copper ] 
25.4 — Zinc L„„- , t* 
31.6 - Nickel H^entto 

2.6 — Iron J 



6 oz. 7 drams, full. 



— full. 

— nearly. 

— nearly. 



100.0 Parts. 



16 oz. — Avd. 



STATUE COMPOSITION. 107 



xvELLER S STATUE COMPOSITION. 

The brothers Keller, who were very celebrated 
statue founders, used an alloy, 10,000 parts of which 
contained 9140 parts of copper, 714 parts tin, 118 
parts zinc, and 28 parts lead. This is the composi- 
tion of the statue of Louis XIV., which was cast 
at a single jet, by Balthazar Keller, in 1669. It is 
twenty-one feet high, and weighs 53,263 French 
oounds. These statues are usually miscalled bronze. 

The best brass consists of four parts of copper to 
one part of zinc. 

Bronze was well known to the Romans under the 
name of " orichalcum" who took advantage of its 
resemblance to gold, in robbing the temples and 
other public places of that precious metal. Thus 
Julius Caesar robbed the Capitol of 3000 pounds 
weight of gold ; and Vitellius despoiled the temples 
of their gifts and ornaments, and replaced them 
with this inferior metal. 



106 



PACKFONG AND COPPER. 



THE CHINESE PACKFONG,* 

According to Dr. Fyfe's analysis, is said to con- 
sist of 



40.4 parts of copper 
25.4 " zinc 
31.6 " nickel 



2.6 



a 



100.0 parts. 



iron 



equiva- 
lent to 



f 6 oz. 7 dr. full. 

4 oz. 1 dr. full. 

5 oz. 1 dr. nearly. 

7 dr. nearly. 



16 oz. dr. 



copper. 



Copper, when mixed with as much zinc as possi- 
ble, that is 89 pounds copper to 100 pounds zinc, 
becomes white. The best " Goslar zinc" is from the 
Hartz, Germany. 



* Similar to our German silver. 



COMPOSITIONS. 100 



SILVER STEEL. 



1 part silver, 500 parts steel, according to Fara- 
day and Stodan. This alloy would be superior to 
the best steel. Steel also combines with otner 
metals, such as nickel, platinum, manganese, &c. 



COPPER AND ANTIMONY. 



75 parts copper, and 25 parts antimony. This 
alloy is brittle, lamellated, of a violet colour, sus- 
ceptible of a fine polish, and is more fusible than 
copper. 



ANTIMONY AND TIN, COPPER AND BISMUTH. 

100 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony, 4 parts of 

copper, and 1 part of bismuth, constitute the com 

pound commonly called pewter. 
10 



no COMPOSITIONS. 



BISMUTH AND LEAD. 

1 part of bismuth, and 1 part of lead, a very te- 
nacious alloy, melting at 165° Centigrade, equiva- 
lent to 370° Fahrenheit. 

2 parts of lead to 1 part of bismuth, gives an 
alloy which dilates powerfully at the time of cooling. 
(This property makes it extremely suitable to all 
castings in which the greatest sharpness and finish 
are desirable. — II. Meigs.) 



FULL MEASURE OF CAPACITY OF TIN AND LEAD 

82 parts tin, and 18 parts lead. 



BRILLIANTS OF FAHLUN 



Thus called, are made from 29 parts of tin, and 
L9 parts of lead. A very fusible and brilliant alloy. 



COMPOSITIONS OF METALS. Ill 



QUEEN S METAL, 

Imitating silver, has great metallic lustre : 
parts tin, 1 part lead, 1 part antimony, and 1 part 
bismuth. 



tin and zinc. 



1 part tin, and 1 part zinc, is almost as tenacious 
as brass, and melts at 460° to 500° Centigrade, 
900° Fahrenheit. 



TIN AND IRON. 



These two metals may be alloyed in all propor- 
tions. 35 parts of tin to 65 parts of iron, form an 
alloy of a clear crystalline gray, and so brittle that 
it may be reduced to an impalpable powder. 



J12 SILVERING COPPER— MOSAIC GOLD. 



TO SILVER COPPER. 

Precipitate silver from its nitric solution by the 
immersion of polished plates of copper. Take of 
this silver 20 grains, supertartrate of potass, 2 
drachms, common salt, 2 drachms, and of alum, 
half a drachm. Mix the whole well together. 

Then take the article to be silvered, clean it well, 
and rub some of the mixture, previously a little 
moistened, upon its surface. The silver surface may 
be polished with a piece of soft leather. 

The dial-plates of clocks, scales of barometers, 
&c, are plated thus. 



MOSAIC GOLD (or molu), 

May be thus made : take copper and zinc, equal 
parts ; mix them together at the lowest possible 
temperature at which copper will fuse, and stir 
until a perfect mixture of the metals is effected. 
Then add gradually small portions of zinc at a time, 
until the alloy acquires a proper colour, which is 



BRONZING BRASS. 113 

perfectly white while in the melted state. It should 
then at once be cast into figured moulds. This 
alloy should contain from 52 to 55 per cent, of zinc. 



TO BRONZE BRASS, ETC. 

To 6 pounds of muriatic acid, add 2 pounds of 
oxide of iron, and 1 pound of yellow arsenic. Mix 
all well together, and let it stand for two days, fre- 
quently shaking it in the mean time, when it is fit 
for use. 

Whatever may be the article which requires 
bronzing, let it be perfectly cleaned, and free from 
grease; immerse it in the above solution, and let it 
stand for three hours, or rather till it will turn en- 
tirely black. Then wash the spirits off, and dry it 
in sawdust, which has been found the best. 

After the article is perfectly dry, apply to it some 
wet black, the same as used for stones, and then 
polish it with some dry black-lead and a brush, and 
it is ready for lacquering. 



10* 



114 LACQUERS. 



LACQUERS. 

Lacquers are used upon polished metals and wood, 
to impart the appearance of gold. As they are -want- 
ed of different depths and shades of colours, it is best 
to keep a concentrated solution of each colouring 
ingredient ready, so that it may at any time be 
added to produce any desired tint. 

1. Deep Gold-coloured Lacquer. — Seed lac, three 
ounces ; turmeric, one ounce ; dragon's blood, a 
quarter of an ounce ; alcohol, one pint. Digest for 
a week, frequently shaking. Decant and filter. 

2. Gold-coloured Lacquer. — Ground turmeric, 
one pound; gamboge, an ounce and a half; gum- 
sandarach, three pounds and a half; shell lac, three- 
quarters of a pound (all in powder) ; rectified spirits 
of wine, two gallons. Dissolve, strain, and add one 
pint of turpentine varnish. 

8. Bed-coloured Lacquer. — Spanish anatto, three 
pounds ; dragon's blood, one pound ; gum-sandarach, 
three pounds and a quarter; rectified spirits, two 



LACQUERS. 115 

gallons; turpentine varnish, one quart. Dissolve 
and mix as the last. 

4. Pale Brass-coloured Lacquer. — Gamboge, cut 
small, one ounce ; cape aloes, ditto, three ounces ; 
pale shell lac, one pound; rectified spirits, two gal- 
lons. Dissolve and mix as No. 2. 

5. Seed lac, dragon's blood, anatto, and gamboge, 
of each a quarter of a pound ; saffron, one ounce ; 
rectified spirits of wine, ten pints. Dissolve and 
mix as No. 2. 



The following receipts make most excellent lac- 
quers. 

1. Gold Lacquer. — Put into a clean four-gallon 
tin 1 pound of ground turmeric, 1J ounces of 
powdered gamboge, 3 J ounces of powdered gum-san- 
darach, f of a pound of shell lac, and 2 gallons of 
spirits of wine. After being agitated, dissolved, and 
strained, add one pint of turpentine varnish, well 
mixed. 

2. Bed Lacquer. — 2 gallons of spirits of wine, 
1 pound of dragon's blood, 3 pounds of Spanish 



U6 LACQUERS. 

anatto, 8J pounds of gum-sandarach, 2 pints of tur- 
pentine. Made as No. 1 lacquer. 

3. Pale Brass Lacquer. — 2 gallons of spirits of 
wine, 3 ounces of cape aloes cut small, 1 pound of 
fine pale shell lac, 1 ounce of gamboge cut small, 
no turpentine varnish. Made exactly as before. 

. But observe, that those who make lacquers, fre- 
quently want some paler, and some darker, and 
sometimes inclining more to the particular tint of 
certain of the component ingredients. Therefore, 
if a four-ounce phial of a strong solution of each 
ingredient be prepared, a lacquer of any tint can 
be procured at any time. 

4. Pale Tin Lacquer. — Strongest alcohol, 4 
ounces ; powdered turmeric, 2 drachms ; hay saf- 
fron, 1 scruple ; dragon's blood in powder, 2 scru- 
ples ; red saunders, J scruple. Infuse this mixture 
in the cold for 48 hours, pour off the clear, and 
strain the rest ; then add powdered shell lac, J 
ounce ; sandarach, 1 drachm ; mastic, 1 drachm ; 
Canada balsam, 1 drachm. Dissolve this in the 
cold by frequent agitation, laying the bottle on its 
side, to present a greater surface to the alcohol. 
When dissolved., add 40 drops of spirits of tur- 
pentine. 



LACQUER AND BRONZE LIQUID. 117 

5. Another Deep Gold Lacquer. — Strongest alco- 
hol, 4 ounces ; Spanish anatto, 8 grains ; powdered 
turmeric, 2 drachms ; red saunders, 12 grains. In- 
fuse and add shell lac, &c, as to the pale tin lac- 
quer ; and when dissolved add 30 drops of spirits 
of turpentine. 

N. B. Lacquer should always stand till it is quite 
fine, before it is used. 



GREEN BRONZE LIQUID. 

Take one quart of strong vinegar, half an ounce 
of mineral green, half an ounce of raw umber, half 
an ounce of sal-ammoniac, half an ounce of gum 
arabic, two ounces of French berries, half an ounce 
of copperas, and about three ounces of green oats, 
if these can be procured, although, if they cannot, 
the preparation will succeed perfectly well without 
them. Dissolve the whole in a strong earthen ves- 
sel, adding the berries and the oats, over a gentle 
fire ; bring the compound to boil, then allow it to 
cool, and run it through a flannel bag, when the 
bronze will be readv for use. 



118 SILVERING IVORY AND ZINCING. 



TO SILVER IVORY. 

Immerse a slip of ivory in a weak solution of 
nitrate of silver, and let it remain until the solution 
has imparted to it a deep yellow colour. Then take 
it out, and immerse it in a tumbler of clear water, 
and expose it in the water to the rays of the sun. 
After it has been exposed thus for about three hours, 
the ivory acquires a black colour, which on being 
burnished soon becomes a brilliant silver one. 



ZINCING. 



Copper and brass vessels may be covered with a 
firmly adherent layer of pure zinc, by boiling them 
in contact with a solution of chloride of zinc, pure 
zinc turnings being at the same time present in con- 
siderable excess. The same object may be attained 
by means of zinc, and a solution of sal-ammoniac, 
or caustic potassa. 



TABLES. 



119 



TABLE I. — METAL PLATES. 

This table shows the weight of a square foot 
of different metal plates, of thicknesses of one six- 
teenth of an inch to one inch, advancing by a 
sixteenth : — 



Six- 


Wrought 


Cast 


Cast 


Cast 


Cast 


Cast 


Cast 


Cast 


teenths. 


Iron. 


Iron. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Silver. 
lbs. 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


1 


2.5 


2.3 


2.9 


2.7 


3.7 


2.3 


2.4 


3.4 


2 


5.1 


4.7 


5.7 


5.5 


7.4 


4.7 


4.7 


6.8 


3 


7.6 


7.0 


8.6 


8.2 


11.1 


7.0 


7.1 


10.2 


4 


10.1 


9.4 


11.4 


11.0 


14.8 


9.4 


9.5 


13.6 


5 


12.7 


11.7 


14.3 


13.7 


18.5 


11.7 


11.9 


17.0 


6 


15.2 


14.0 


17.2 


16.4 


22.2 


14.0 


14.2 


20.5 


7 


17.9 


16.4 


20.0 


19.2 


25.9 


16.4 


10.6 


23.9 


8 


20.3 


18.8 


22.9 


21.9 


29.5 


18.7 


19.0 


27.3 


9 


22.8 


21.1 


25.7 


24.6 


33.2 


21.1 


21.4 


30.7 


10 


25.4 


23.5 


28.6 


27.4 


36.9 


23.4 


23.7 


34.1 


11 


27.9 


25.8 


31.4 


30.1 


40.6 


25.7 


26.1 


37.5 


12 


30.4 


28.1 


34.3 


32.9 


44.3 


28.1 


28.5 


40.9 


13 


32.9 


30.5 


37.2 


35.6 


48.0 


30.4 


30.9 


44.3 


14 


35.5 


32.9 


40.0 


38.3 


51.7 


32.8 


33.2 


47.7 


15 


38.0 


35.2 


42.9 


41.2 


55.4 


35.1 


35.6 


51.1 


16 


40.6 


37.6 


45.8 


43.9 


59.1 


37.5 


38.0 


54.6 



TABLE II. — CAST METAL BALLS. 



Diam. — Ins. 


Iron. — lbs. 


Copper. — lbs. 


Brass. — lbs. 


Lead. — lbs. 


1 


3 


1 


3 


3 


2* 


6 


1^ 


14 


2 


1.1 


1.3 


1.8 


1.7 


o 
O 


3.7 


4.5 


4.3 


5.8 


4 


8.7 


10.7 


10.2 


13.8 


5 


17.0 


20.8 


19.9 


26.9 


6 


29.5 


35.9 


34.3 


46.4 


7 


46.8 


57.1 


54.5 


73.7 


8 


69.8 


85.2 


81.4 


110.1 


9 


99.4 


121.3 


115.9 


156.7 


10 


136.4 


166.4 


159.0 


215.0 



1.20 



TABLES. 



TABLE III. — CAST IRON PIPES. 

This table shows the weight of cast iron pipes 
1 foot long, of bores from 1 inch to 12 inches diam- 
eter, advancing by J of an inch ; and of thicknesses 
from J inch to 1 J inch, advancing by J of an inch. 



Bore. 


H 


% 


Vi 


% 


% | % 


1 1 


m 


m 


In. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


1 


3.1 


5.1 


7.4 


10.0 


12.9 


16.1 


19.6 


23.5 


27.6 ' 


1% 


3.7 


6.0 


8.6 


11.5 


14.7 


18.3 


22.1 


26.2 


30.7 1 




4.3 


6.9 


9.8 


13.0 


16.6 


20.4 


24.5 


29.0 


33.7 


4.9 


7.8 


11.1 


14.6 


18.4 


22.6 


27.0 


31.8 


36.8 


2 


5.5 


8.8 


12.3 


16.1 


20.3 


24.7 


29.5 


34.5 


39.9 


214 


6.1 


9.7 


13.5 


17.6 


22.1 


26.8 


31.9 


37.3 


43.0 


4% 


6.7 


10.6 


14.7 


19.2 


23.9 


28.9 


34.4 


40.0 


46.0 


2% 


7.4 


11.5 


16.0 


.20.7 


25.7 


31.1 


36.8 


42.8 


49.1 


3 


S.ll 


12.4 


17.2 


22.2 


27.6 


33.3 


39.3 


45.6 


52.2 


&A 


8.6 


13.3 


18.4 


23.8 


29.5 


35.4 


41.7 


48.3 


55.2 


3 l A 


9.2 


14.2 


19.6 


25.3 


31.3 


37.6 


44.2 


51.1 


58.3 


&A 


9.8 


15.2 


20.9 


26.9 


33.1 


39.7 


46.6 


53.8 


61.4 


4 


10.4 


16.1 


22.1 


28.4 


35.0 


41.9 


49.1 


56.6 


64.4 


i x 4 


11.1 


17.1 


23.4 


30.0 


36.9 


44.1 


51.6 


59.4 


67.6 


&\ 


11.7 


18.0 


24.5 


31.4 


38.7 


46.2 


54.0 


62.1 


70.6 


i% 


12.3 


18.9 


25.8 


33.0 


40.5 


48.3 


56.5 


64.9 


73.6 


5 


12.9 


19.8 


27.0 


34.5 


42.3 


50.5 


58.9 


67.6 


76.7 


by, 


13.5 


20.7 


2S.2 


36.1 


44.2 


52.6 


61.4 


70.4 


79.8 


14.1 


21.6 


29.5 


37.6 


46.0 


54.8 


63.8 


73.2 


82.8 


$& 


14.7 


22.6 


30.7 


39.1 


47.9 


56.9 


66.3 


76.0 


85.9 


6 


15.3 


23.5 


31.9 


40.7 


49.7 


59.1 


68.7 


78.7 


88.8 


% 

&A 


1G.0 


24.4 


33.1 


42.2 


51.5 


61.2 


71.2 


81.2 


92.0 


16.6 


25.3 


34.4 


43.7 


53.4 


63.4 


73.4 


84.2 


95.1 


17.2 


20.2 


35.6 


45.3 


55.2 


65.3 


76.1 


87.0 


98.2 


7 


17.8 


27.2 


36.8 


46.8 


56.8 


67.7 


78.5 


89.7 


101.2 


1\i 


18.4 


28.1 


38.1 


48.1 


58.9 


69.8 


81.0 


92.5 


104.3 


VA 

"Si 


19.0 


29.0 


39.1 


49.9 


60.7 


72.0 


83.5 


95.3 


107.4 


19.6 


29.7 


40.5 


51.4 


62.6 


74.1 


85.9 


98.0 


110.5 


s 


20.0 


30.8 


41.7 


52.9 


64.4 


76.2 


S8.4 


100.8 


113.5 


s% 


20.9 


31.7 


43.0 


54.5 


66.3 


78.4 


90.8 


103.5 


116.6 


8J| 


21.7 


32.9 


44.4 


56.2 


68.3 


80.8 


93.5 


106.5 


119.9 


m 


22.1 


33.6 


45.4 


57.5 


70.0 


82.7 


95.7 


109.1 


122.7 


9 


22.7 


34.5 


46.6 


59.1 


71.8 


84.8 


98.2 


111.8 


125.8 


9K 

9U 

m 


23.3 


35.4 


47.9 


60.6 


73.6 


87.0 


100.6 


114.6 


128.9 


23.9 


36.4 


49.1 


62.1 


75.5 


89.1 


103.1 


117.4 


131.9 


24.6 


37.3 


50.3 


63.7 


77.3 


91.3 


105.5 


120.1 


135.0 


10 


25.2 


38.2 


51.5 


65.2 


79.2 


93.4 


108.0 


122.8 


138.1 


io l 4 


25.8 


39.1 


52.8 


66.7 


81.0 


95.6 


110.4 


125.6 


141.1 


10^ 


26.4 


40.0 


54.0 


68.3 


82.8 


97.7 


112.9 


128.4 


144.2 


10% 


27.0 


41.0 


55.2 


69.8 


84.7 


99.9 


115.4 


131.2 


147.3 


11 


27.6 


41.9 


56.5 


71.3 


86.5 


102.0 


117.8 


133.9 


150.3 


11 % 


28.2 


42.8 


57.7 


72.9 


884 


104.2 


120.3 


136.7 


153.4 


nS 

11^-4 


28-8 


43.7 


58.9 


74.4 


90.2 


106.3 


122.7 


139.4 


156.4 


29.5 


41.6 


60.1 


75.9 


92.0 


108.5 


125.2 


142.2 


159.5 


12 

1 


30.1 


45.6 


61.4 


77.5 


93.6 


110.6 


127.6 


145.0 


162.6 



TABLES. 



121 



TABLE IV. — CAST METAL CYLINDERS.* 



Diam. — Ins. 


Iron. — lbs. 


Copper. — lbs. 


Brass. — lbs. 


■ 
Lead. — lbs. 


1 


2.5 


3.0 


2.9 


3.9 


2 


9.8 


12.0 


11.4 


15.5 


3 


22.1 


27.0 


25.8 


34.8 


4 


39.3 


47.9 


45.8 


61.9 


5 


61.4 


74.9 


71.6 


96.7 


6 


88.4 


107.8 


103.0 


139.3 


7 


120.3 


146.8 


140.2 


189.6 


8 


157.1 


191.7 


183.2 


247.7 


9 


198.8 


242.7 


231.8 


313.4 


10 


215.4 


299.5 


286.2 


387.0 



TABLE V. — SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT OP 
MATERIALS. 



METALS. 


Specific 


Wt. of 1 


Wt. Of 1 


Gravity. 


cubic foot. 


cubic inch. ' 


| 


oz. 


lbs. 


oz. 


Antimony, cast .... 


6702 


418.9 


3.878 


Arsenic . . . 








5763 


300.2 


3.335 


Bismuth, cast . 














9822 


613.9 


5.684 


Brass, cast . . 














8396 


524.8 


4.859 


Brass, wire . 














8544 


534.0 


4.944 


Bronze . . 














8222 


513.4 


4.753 


Cobalt, cast . 














7811 


48S.2 


4.520 


Copper, cast . 














8788 


549.3 


5.086 


Copper, sheet . 














8915 


557.2 


5.159 


Copper, wire . 














8878 


554.9 


5.136 


Gold, pure . . 














19258 


1203.6 


11.161 


Gold, hammered 














19362 


1210.1 


11.205 


Gold, standard . 














17647 


1102.9 


10.230 


Gun metal . 














8784 


549.0 


5.083 


Iron, bars wrought 














7786 


486.6 


4.506 


Iron, cast . 














7207 


450.4 


4.171 


Lead, cast . . 














11352 


709.5 


6.569 


Mercury, solid . 














15632 


977.0 


9.046 


Mercury, fluid . 














13568 


848.0 


7.S52 


Nickel, cast . 














7807 


487.9 


4.518 


Platinum, pure 














19500 


121S.S 


11.285 


Platinum, hammered 














20336 


1271.0 


11.767 


Silver, pure 














10474 


654.6 


6.061 


Silver, hammered 














10511 


656.9 


6.0S3 


Silver, standard . 














10534 


65S.4 


6.096 


Steel, tempered 














7818 


488.6 


4..-V_'4 


Steel, soft . . 














7833 


489.6 


4.533 


Tin, cast . 














7291 


455.7 


4.244 


Type metal . . 














10450 


653.1 


6.047 


Zinc, cast. 








7190 


449.4 


4.161 


* 'pi.~ ~..i 














u „..« <•.,«* : 


. 1. ....,*!, 





11 



* The cylinders are solid, each one foot in length 



122 



SrECIFIC COHESION OF METALS. 



TABLE VI. — SFECIFIC COHESION AND STRENGTH OF 

METALS. 

In the following table of specific cohesion, the co- 
hesion of plate glass is assumed as unity. If any 
of the numbers in this table be multiplied by 9240, 
the product will express the force in pounds, which 
would tear asunder a bar of the corresponding ma- 
terial, of one inch square of transverse section. 
Thus, the specific cohesion of steel, razor temper, is 
15.927 ; whence the extreme cohesion of a bar one 
inch square is 15.927 X 9240 = 147,165.48 pounds. 





Specific cohesion. 


Antimony, cast 


0.118 


Bismuth, cast 


. 0.345 to 0.319 


Copper, wire 


6.606 


" cast, Barbary . 


2.396 


" " Japan 


2.152 


Gold, wire 


3.279 


case • • < 


2.171 


Iron, wire 


12.004 to 9.108 


" bar 


. 8.964 to 5.839 


" " best quality 


7.006 


" " German, B R 


. 9.880 to 6.514 



SPECIFIC COHESION OF METALS. 



123 



a 
it 
kt 

a 
a 
a 

a 
u 

i 



Iron, bar, Swedish, L 
" Liege 
" German, L 
" Spanish . 
" Oosement 
" fine grained 
" medium fineness 
" coarse grained 
cast, French . 
" German 
" English 
Lead, milled . 
" wire 

" cast, English 
Platinum, wire 
Silver, wire . 
" cast . 
Steel, razor temper 

" soft . 
Tin, wire 
" cast, English block 
" " Banca 
" " Malacca 
Zinc, wire 
" patent sheet 
u cast, Goslar 



Specific cohesion. 

9.445 to 7.296 
8.794 to 6.621 
9.119 to 7.382 
8.685 
8.142 to 7.296 
5.306 
3.618 
2.172 
7.470 to 4.000 
7.250 
5.520 to 4.334 
0.354 
0.334 to 0.270 
0.094 
5.995 to 5.625 
4.090 
4.342 
. 15.927 
. 12.739 
0.757 
0.706 to 0.565 
0.391 
0.342 
2.394 
1.762 
0.312 to 0.286 



124 DIRECT COHESION OF METALS. 



TABLE VII. — DIRECT COHESION OF METALS. 

The numbers in this table of experiments express 

the direct cohesion of bars one inch square in tons, 
of 2240 pounds. 

Tons. lbs. 

Iron bar, cast horizontally . . 8 82 

" " vertically 8 69 

Cast steel, previously tilted . 59 93 

Blistered steel, reduced by hammer 59 43 

Shear " " " 5G 97 

Swedish iron " " 32 15 

English " " " 24 93 

Hard gun metal . . . . 16 23 
Wrought copper, reduced by hammer 15 8 

Cast " " " 8 51 

Fine yellow brass . . . . 8 01 

Cast tin ..... 2 11 

Cast lead . . . . . 81 
"Wrought iron, mean of 26 experiments, 

Brunei 31 20 

" " 9 Brown 29 25 

" " 8 Telford 25 00 

Iron cable, " 13 Brown 21 25 



RESISTANCE OF METALS. 



125 



TABLE VIII. — RESISTANCE OF METALS TO PRESSURE. 

In this table of experiments the number of pounds 
are the weights required to crush cubes of one-quar- 



ter inch in the edge. 






lbs. 


Iron, cast vertically 


11136 


" " horizontally . 


10114 


Copper, cast 


7318 


" wrought . 


6440 


Brass .... 


10304 


Tin, cast . 


966 


Lead, cast . 


483 



TABLE IX. — RESISTANCE OF METALS TO TORSION. 

This table of experiments by Brandreth, exhibits 
only the relative resistance to torsion, that of lead 
being assumed as unity. 
11* 



126 



1 


30LDBRS 






lbs, 


Cast steel 19.56 


Shear steel . 








IT. 06 


Blister steel . 








16.69 


English iron . 








10.13 


Swedish iron 








9.50 


Hard gun metal 








5.00 


Fine yellow brass 








4.60 


Copper . 








4.31 


Tin 








1.44 


Lead 








1.00 



GOLD AND SILVEB SOLDERS. 

liar J Solder for Gold is prepared from gold and 
silver, or from gold and copper, or from gold, silver, 
and copper. 

Ghld Solder, — 66.6 parts of gold, ir>.7 parts of 

silver, and 16.7 parts of copper. 



Hard Solder for Silver, — Equal parts oi' silver 
and brass ; but made easier of fusion by the admix- 
ture of one-sixteenth of line. 



ON SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 127 

Another Silver Solder. — 19 parts fine silver, 1 
part copper, 10 parts brass. 

Another Silver Solder. — 66.6 parts silver, 30.4 
parts copper, 3.4 parts brass. 



BRASS SOLDER. 

Brass mixed with a sixth, an eighth, or even one- 
half of zinc. 

Another Brass Solder. — 12 pounds copper, and 
11 pounds of zinc. 



METHOD OF SOLDERING GOLD AND SILVER. 

After the solder is cast into an ingot, it would 
be more ready for use if you were to draw it into 
small wire, or flat it between two rollers. After 
that cut it into little bits, then join your work 
together with fine soft iron wire, and with a camel's- 
hair pencil dipped in borax, finely powdered and 



128 TO CLEANSE A.FTER SOLDERING. 

well moistened with water, touch the joint intended 
to be soldered, placing a little solder on the joint. 
Apply it on a large piece of charcoal, and with a 
blow-pipe and lamp blow upon it through the flame 
until it melts the solder, and it is done. 



TO CLEANSE SILVER AFTER IT IS SOLDERED. 

Make it just red hot, and let it cool ; then boil 
it in alum water, in an earthen vessel, and it will 
be as clean as when new. 



TO CLEANSE GOLD AFTER IT IS SOLDERED. 

Put it through the same process as silver, but, 
instead of alum-water, boil it in wine and sal-ammo- 
niac. 



SILVER-SOLDER FOR JEWELLERS. 

19 dwts. of fine silver, 1 dwt. of copper, and 10 
dwts. of brass. 



ALLOYS AND SOLDER. 129 



TRINKET COMPOSITION. 
76 parts gold, 25 parts copper, and a little silver. 



SILVER-PLATE AND MEDAL ALLOY. 

95 parts silver, and 5 parts of copper. 



GOLD COIN OF AMERICA ALLOY. 

90 parts gold, 2.5 silver, and 7.5 copper. 



SOLDER FOR IRON. 



Nothing here is necessary but good tough brass, 
with borax, applied, mixed with water to the con- 
sistence of cream. 



130 



SOLDERING AND BURNING METALS. 



SOLDERING AND BURNING METALS. 



Besides the more common processes of soldering, 
properly so called, the process of burning together 
must frequently be employed, as in making small 
additions to old castings, and repairing small defects 
in new ones. 

In operations of this kind, very high degrees of 
heat are often required. This caused the introduc- 
tion of the blow-pipe into the workshop. Perhaps 
the most powerful and convenient form of this in- 
strument is that invented in France, by Count de 
Richemont, and patented in England by Mr. Del- 
bruch. A figured description of the same, with its 
use explained, we now present to our readers. 




SOLDERING AND BURNING METALS. 131 

The elastic tube h supplies hydrogen from the 
generator, and the pipe a supplies atmospheric air 
from a small pair of double bellows b, worked by the 
foot of the operator, and compressed by a constant 
weight w; the two pipes meet at the arch, and pro- 
ceed through the third pipe e to the small jet/, from 
whence proceeds the flame. All the connexions are 
by elastic tubes, which allow perfect freedom of 
motion, so that the portable blow-pipe is carried to 
the work. 

In soldering by the autogenous process, the works 
are first prepared and scraped clean as usual ; the 
hydrogen is ignited, and the size of the flame is pro- 
portioned by the stop-cock h; the air is then ad- 
mitted through a, until the flame assumes a fine 
pointed character, with which the work is united. 

The gas generator bears some resemblance to 
Pepys' gasometer. When it is first charged, the 
stopper 1 is unscrewed, and the lower chamber is 
nearly filled with curly shreds of sheet zinc, and the 
stopper is replaced. The cover is now removed, and 
a plug with a long wire is inserted from the top into 
the hole near 3 ; the upper chamber is next filled 
with dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid and 6 water), 
until it is just seen through the central hole to rise 
above the plate immediately beneath it. This mea- 



132 AERO-HYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. 

sures the quantity of liquid required to charge the 
vessel without the risk of overflow. The plug is 
now withdrawn from 3, and the cocks 4, and h f 
being opened, the air escapes from the lower vessel 
by the pressure of the column of water which enters 
beneath the perforated bottom 5, upon which the 
zinc rests. The cocks 4 and 7i are now closed, and 
by the decomposition of the water hydrogen is gene- 
rated, which occupies the upper part of the lower 
chamber, and drives the dilute acid upwards, through 
the aperture 3, so as to place matters in the posi- 
tion of the engraving, which represents the gene- 
rator about two-thirds filled with gas. 

The gas issues through the pipe h when both 
cocks are opened, but it has to proceed through a 
safety-box, 6, in which the syphon-tube dips two or 
three inches into a little plain water, introduced at 
the lateral aperture 7 : by this precaution the con- 
tents of the gasometer cannot be ignited, as should 
the flame return through the pipe A, it would be in- 
tercepted by the water in the safety-box. After 
three or four days' constant work, the liquid be- 
comes converted into the sulphate of zinc, and is 
withdrawn through the plug 8 ; the vessel is then 
refilled with fresh dilute acid, as already explained, 
but the zinc lasts a considerable time. 



AERO-HYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. 133 

The generators are made of lead, or, where porta- 
bility and lightness are required, of copper washed 
with lead, and all the exposed parts of the brass 
work are washed and united with lead to defend 
them from the acid. Occasionally the air is likewise 
supplied by aerometers, or vessels somewhat resem- 
bling the gas generator, but which are only filled 
with common air, and therefore do not require the 
zinc or acid. 

The difference between the aero-hydrogen blow- 
pipe described above, and the oxy-hydrogen blow- 
pipe of Dr. Hare, is this : — in the latter the pure 
gases (oxygen and hydrogen) are mixed in the exact 
proportions of two volumes of hydrogen to one of 
oxygen — which quantities, when combined, con- 
stitute water, and during combination evolve the 
greatest amount of heat. The aeiohjdrogen blow- 
pipe is supplied vrth. common an* ar d p r s hydro- 
gen. 



12 



134 JSOFT SOLDERS. 



SOFT SOLDERS. 

Tin and lead in equal parts. Easier of fusion 
still is tin, lead, and bismuth, in equal parts ; or 
one or two bismuth, one lead, and one tin, easiei 
still. 

For soft soldering brass, tin-foil makes a fine 
juncture, applied between the joints, care being 
taken to avoid too much heat. This is most excellent 
for fine brass work. The tin-foil must be moistened 
in a strong solution of sal-ammoniac. 



* SOLDER FOR LEAD. 

2 parts lead and 1 part tin. Its goodness is tried 
by melting it and pouring the bigness of a dollar 
piece upon the table ; for if it be good there will arise 
little bright spots in it. Apply rosin when you use 
the solder. 



SOLDER, PEWTER, AND WHITE METAL. 135 



PLUMBER S SOLDER. 



1 part bismuth, 5 parts lead, and 3 parts tin, 
forms a compound of great importance in the arts. 



COMPOSITIONS OF PEWTER. 

1. 100 parts tin, 17 parts of antimony ; the French 
add a little copper. 

2. 12 pounds of tin, 1 pound of antimony, 4 
ounces of copper. 

3. 7 pounds of tin, 1 pound of lead, 6 ounces cop- 
per, 2 ounces zinc. Melt the copper first. 



WHITE METAL. 



10 ounces lead, 6 ounces bismuth, and 4 drachms 
of antimony; or, 2 pounds of antimony, 8 ounces of 
brass, and 10 ounces of tin. 



136 COMPOSITIONS OF SOFT METAL. 



MOSAIC MIXTURE. 



Equal parts of tin, bismuth, and mercury, forms 
a metal used for various ornamental purposes. 



SILVERY-LOOKING METAL. 



A very fine silvery-looking metal is made from 
100 parts tin, 8 parts antimony, 1 part bismuth, and 
4 parts copper. 



METAL FOR FLUTE VALVE KEYS. 

4 ounces of lead and 2 ounces of antimony. 



GERMAN TITANIUM. 



2 drachms of copper, 1 ounce of antimony, and 
1.2 ounces of tin. 



COMPOSITIONS Ob 1 SOFT METAL. 137 



SPANISH TITANIUM. 

8 ounces of scrap iron or steel, 1 pound of anti- 
mony, and 3 ounces of nitre. 

The iron or steel must be heated to whiteness, 
and the antimony and nitre added in small portions. 
Two ounces of this compound are sufficient to harden 
one pound of tin. 



BRITANNIA METAL. 

4 ounces of plate brass, 4 ounces of tin ; when 
fused add 4 ounces of bismuth, and 4 ounces of an- 
timony. This composition is added at discretion to 
melted tin. 



COLUMBIA METAL. 



4 J pounds of tin, -J pound of bismuth, J pound of 

antimony, and J pound of lead ; or, 100 pounds of 

tin, 8 pounds of antimony, 1 pound of bismuth, and 
12* 



188 TYPE METALS. 

4 pounds of copper. This alloy is used for making 
tea-pots, and other vessels which imitate silver. 



TYPE METAL. 

10 pounds of lead, and 2 ounces of antimony. 
The antimony is added when the lead is in a state 
of fusion. The antimony gives hardness to the lead, 
And prevents its contraction when cooling. 

For Small Types. — 9 pounds of lead, 2 pounds 
of antimony, and 1 pound of bismuth. The anti- 
mony and bismuth are added when the lead is melted. 
This alloy expands in cooling ; the mould is there- 
Tore entirely filled when the metal is cold, and no 
blemish is found in the letters. Stereotype plates 
are formed of this alloy. Some employ tin instead 
of bismuth. 

Type Metal of the French, Letter Founders. — 
Four-firths of lead, and one-fifth of regulus of anti- 
mony. 

The letter founders of Berlin use 11 pounds of 






GERMAN SILVER. 139 

antimony, 25 pounds of lead, and 5 pounds of iron. 
Many add tin, copper, and brass ; while some make 
their types from 3 parts lead, to 1 of antimony. 



GERMAN SILVER. 

1. 25 parts nickel, 20 parts zinc, and 60 parts 
copper. If for casting add 3 parts of lead. 

2. 16 parts copper, 8 parts zinc, and 3 J parts 
nickel. 

3. 8 parts of copper, 3 J parts of zinc, and 2 parts 
of nickel. 

4. 28 parts copper, 13 parts zinc, and 7J parts 
nickel. 

5. Copper, 8 parts ; zinc, 3J parts ; nickel 3 

parts. 

This last is a very beautiful compound. It has 
the appearance of silver a little below standard. By 
some persons it is even preferred to the more ex- 



140 SPECULUM METALS. 

pensive compound. Manufacturers are strongly re- 
commended not to use a metal inferior to this. 



SPECULUM METAL. 

1. Copper, 64 parts ; grain tin, 29 parts. Melt 
the metals separately, under a little black flux. In- 
corporate thoroughly by stirring with a wooden 
spatula ; then run the metal in the mould, so that 
the face of the intended mirror may be downwards. 

2. Copper, 82 parts ; tin, 14 parts ; arsenic, 2 
parts. A very good metal. 

3. Copper, 32 parts; tin, 13J parts; arsenic, 1J 
parts. 

4. Copper, 82 parts ; tin, 15 parts ; arsenic, 2 
parts. Better than 2 and 3. 

5. Copper, 32 parts ; tin, 15 parts ; brass, 1 part ; 
silver, 1 part; arsenic, 1 part. A most excellent 
metal, and Dy far the whitest, hardest, and most re- 
flective metal I have ever yet met with. 



SPECULUM METALS. 141 

6. Copper, 6 parts; tin, 2 parts; arsenic, 1 part 
Sir Isaac Newton's mixture. It is a compact metal 
enough, but very yellow when polished. 

7. Copper, 3 parts ; tin, 1 J parts. Compact, and 
whiter than the last. 

8. Brass, 6 parts ; tin, 1 part. Compact, but too 
yellow. 

9. 2 parts of 7th composition, and 1 part of 8th. 
Compact, but much too yellow when polished. 7, 
8, and 9, are experiments by Professor Molyneux, 
F. R. S. 

10. Copper, 82 parts;. tin, 2 parts; arsenic, 1 
part. A pretty good metal, but polishes too yellow. 
Professor Mudge's composition. 



112 REMARKS. 



REMARKS. 

In melting arsenic, nitre is a good flux for fixing 
it with other metals. 

In using iron filings in your compositions, use 
corrosive sublimate (viz. chloride of mercury) for 
fixing it. 

Powdered flint glass also makes a most excellent 
flux for copper, tin, and arsenic. 

No. 5. This metal, when broken, should appear 
of a bright, glassy, and quicksilver complexion. If 
it appears hard and of a dead white, more tin must 
be added. The copper will sometimes take sixteen 
ounces of tin, if it is very pure. If it appears bluish 
and rough, more copper or brass must be added. 

It is somewhat singular that arsenic, though par- 
ticularly recommended by Sir Isaac Newton, Di. 
Olynthus Gregory, and others, for giving homo- 
geneity to metallic compositions, should be so hastily 
thrown aside by the founders. This imprudent dis- 
use of it, I can only attribute to the disagreeable 
fumes or vapours, which arise when it is introduced 
into the crucible, to the melted mixture, which may 
produce disagreeable effects upon the operators, if 



REMARKS. 143 

proper care be not taken to prevent them from 
being received into the lungs. All the precaution 
necessary, is to bruise the arsenic coarsely, and in- 
troduce it into the crucible with a pair of tongs, 
having tied it up in a piece of paper, giving it then 
a stir with a wooden spatula made of birch, during 
which time retaining your breath — avoid it till you 
can see no more vapours arise from the crucible, 
when the metal will be ready to pour. 

The common black flux is made of two parts of 
tartar, and one of nitre. 

I have always found from adding a small quantity 
of arsenic, viz., from one-half ounce to one ounce to 
the pound of metal, that it would considerably im- 
prove even porous metal, and make it harder, like- 
wise, as well as whiter. 

In making speculums, the casting should be taken 
from the mould red-hot, and put into a quantity of 
hot ashes to anneal it, or else it will break in the 
sand. Let it remain in the ashes till the whole be- 
comes cold. 

Professor Nevil Masculyne, speaking of arsenic, 
says — I have been assured by two ingenious experi- 
mental philosophers that the fumes of arsenic, even 
when the garlic smell is very strong, are not in th< 
least prejudicial to the lungs. 



144 PLATINA. 

A careful study of the above remarks will be of 
inestimable advantage to the practical brass founder, 
saving him both loss of work, as well as loss of time. 



PLATINA. 



Mirrors for telescopes, &c, are made of pla- 
tina, of exquisite beauty. The Spaniards are in the 
habit of mixing it with iron, in order to form gun- 
barrels, which are said never to rust, and which are 
much stronger than iron barrels alone, as it gives to 
the iron a remarkable toughness. It forms a valu- 
able coating for copper and iron, and may hereafter 
become precious for the formation of coins and 
medals. 

Platina, in its malleable state, may be cut with a 
knife ; but with steel it forms an alloy not to be 
touched with a file. 

The nitro-muriatic acid is the proper solvent for 
platina. 



ARSENIC. 145 



ON THE PROPERTIES OF ARSENIC. 

Arsenic is a brittle metal, and, in the recent frac- 
ture, of a lively bright colour, between tin-white 
and lead-gray ; but on exposure to the air it soon 
lo3es its metallic lustre, and turns prismatic, dull, 
and at last black. Its specific gravity is, according 
to Professor Mudge, between 8.310 and 5.763, ac- 
cording to its texture. 

Its hardness surpasses that of copper, but its 
ductility is so little, and it brittleness so great, that 
it is readily converted into a powder by the hammer. 
It is entirely volatilized when heated to 356° Fahr. 
It sublimes in close vessels, and then crystallizes in 
tetrahedra, or octahedra. When heated with the 
excess of air, it emits a strong smell of garlic, and 
burns with a bluish white flame. It combines with 
sulphur by fusion. It unites to phosphorus, and 
combines with most of the metals. 

Besides giving a white colour to copper, it renders 
many of the ductile metals brittle. When mixed 
with hyper-oxygenated muriate of potash, it deto- 
nates strongly by the stroke of a hammer. It is 
soluble in hydrogen gas by heat. It does not decom- 
13 ' 



HG EXPERIMENTS. 

pose water alone ; it decomposes sulphuric acid by 
heat. The nitric and nitrous acid oxidate it rapidly. 
The muriatic acid attacks it with heat. The oxy- 
genated muriatic acid (now termed chlorine), when 
in a gaseous state, inflames it instantly. It is nearly 
unalterable by the fluoric, boracic, phosphoric, and 
carbonic acids. It unites with alkaline sulphurets 
and hydro-sulphurets. It is a deadly poison. 

If you insert a little arsenic, reduced to fine 
powder, between two polished plates of copper, and 
bind closely together with iron wire, and heat them, 
the inner surfaces of the copper plates will be ren- 
dered white by the arsenic. 

Experiment No. 3. Experimental proofs of the 
properties of arsenic. Arsenic burns and is vola- 
tilized by heat. — Introduce into a crucible, made 
red-hot in a coal fire, a small quantity of arsenic, 
and it will begin to burn and become volatilized. 
If this crucible be covered with another, and the 
joinings luted with clay, the arsenic will be found 
in the upper one in brilliant crystals. 

Experiment No. 2. — The union of arsenic with 
copper may likewise be effected by fusing 1 part of 
arsenic with 4 of copper, in a common crucible. 



FONTAINEMOREAU'S ALLOYS. 147 

The alloy produced is a white metal. It is neces- 
sary in this experiment to cover the substances in 
the crucible with common salt, to prevent the action 
of the air. 



FONTAINEMOREAU S NEW ALLOYS OF ZINC, A SUB- 
STITUTE FOR BRONZE, COPPER, AND BRASS. 

An invention of a new alloy of zinc, with small 
proportions of other metals, found to possess very 
peculiar advantages, has lately been introduced into 
England, where it has been patented in the name 
of M. Fontainemoreau. It is likely to prove of 
great utility in the manufacture of machinery, and 
in castings relating to the fine arts. As a substi- 
tute for copper and bronze it already bids fair to be 
extensively adopted. 

The proportions of metals which have been found 
most advantageous in forming varieties of the alloy, 
after very numerous and extensive experiments, are 
as follows : — 

No. 1. Zinc, 90 parts; copper, 8 parts; cast iron, 
1 part; lead, 1 part; 100 parts. 



148 FONTAINEMOREAU S ALLOYS. 

NO. 2, Zino, 91 parts; copper, 8 parts; lead, I 

pari ; LOO parts. 

No. ;'.. Zino, 92 parts; copper, 8 parts; LOO 
parts. 

No. I. Zino, 99 parts; oopper, I part; LOO parts. 

No. <">. Zino, 07 parts; copper, 2) parts; cast 
iron, A part ; 100 parts. 

No. 6. Zino, 97 parts ; copper, r\ p;uts ; LOO 
parts. 

No. 7. Zinc, 99J partSJ cast iron, \ part; LOO 
parts. 

No. S. Zinc, 91J parts; OOpper, 8 parts; cast 
iron, \ part ; 100 parts. 

The proportions stated of any of these metals 
may he slightly Varied, so long as DJ such variation 

the alloy is not made too brittle, or too soft. For 

instance, the proportion oi' copper may he \aried 

from about 1 pari to about L2 parts, in every hun- 
dred; hut any greater proportion o\' oopper than 

this, and less than that used in forming common 
brass, would make the alloy brittle. The propor- 
tion oi' cast iron may he varied from ahout one- 
quarter v[' a part, to ahout two parts in oveiy hun- 
dred, The proportion of lead may he Varied from 
ahout one, to ahout twenty four parts in evcrj hun- 



FONTAINE MOKE AU'S ALLOYS. 149 

dred parts ; bat the presence of some third metal is 
necessary to produce a proper combination of the 
zinc and lead. Instead of pure copper, or any other 
of the simple metals before to be used, brass, or the 
other alloys formed of these metals, may be used. 
But where this is done, the quantity of copper and 
the simple metals contained in such alloys must be 
taken into account in calculating the relative pro- 
portions of simple metals which the new alloy is to 
contain in reference to the tables of component 
parts. 

The principal object of the addition of the small 
quantities of copper, cast iron, and lead to the larger 
proportions of zinc, is to change the manner of the 
crystallization of the zinc after it has been fused 
and set to cool. 

The new alloys are of a closer texture, more 
homogeneous, and malleable, than simple zinc, and 
some kinds of iron ; are less liable to oxidation, and 
of a much finer grain than zinc — somewhat resem- 
bling that of steel, especially when the alloys are 
rolled. They are also easier filed than either zinc, 
copper, or brass, and the filings do not stick in and 
clog the file. 

N. B. By casting the new alloys in metallic 

moulds, their hardness and homogeneity is increased, 
13* 



150 BRONZING THE ALLOYS. 

and a sort of temper is imparted to them, resembling 
or approaching to steel. 

For the purpose of rendering the alloys which 
are of a silvery-gray colour, perfectly suitable as 
substitutes for copper, bronze, brass, and other 
metals, the colour proper to the metals of which 
they are intended to be substitutes, is imparted 
to them by means of any solution of copper. The 
hydrochlorate of copper is found to answer best — 

Firstly. — For giving the alloys a blackish-bronze 
colour, they are treated with a solution of the salt 
of copper, diluted with a considerable quantity of 
water, and a small quantity of nitric acid may be 
added. 

Secondly. — To impart a red or copper colour, add 
to the solution of salt of copper, liquid ammonia, 
and a little acetic acid. The salt of copper may 
be dissolved in the liquid ammonia. 

Thirdly. — To impart a brass, or antique bronze 
colour, either of the three following means may be 
adopted : 1. A solution of copper, with some acetic 
acid. 2. The means before described for copper 
colour, with a large proportion of liquid ammonia. 
3. Water acidulated with nitric acid, by which 
beautiful bluish shades may be produced. It must 
be observed, however, that this last process can only 



BRONZING THE ALLOYS. 151 

be properly employed on the alloys which contain a 
portion of copper. 

In either of these methods of colouring, a solution 
of sal-ammoniac may be substituted for the liquid 
ammonia. The quantities of each ingredient have 
not been stated, as these depend upon the nature of 
the alloy, the shade or hue desired, and the dura- 
bility required. 

The blackish-bronze colour may be superadded to 
the red or copper colour, whereby a beautiful light 
colour is produced on the prominent parts of the 
article bronzed, or on the parts from which the 
blackish-bronze colour may have been rubbed ofF. 

These new alloys may be used as substitutes for 
various metals now in general use, such as iron, in 
various parts of machinery ; iron, lead, tin, or cop- 
per, in pipes and tubes, and bronze, brass, and cop- 
per, in machinery and manufactories, as well as for 
most of the other purposes for which more expensive 
metals are employed. 



152 ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 



% )N ZINC AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FOR IRON ; AND 
THE ADAPTATION OF THE PROCESS OF ELECTRO- 
DEPOSITION FOR THAT PURPOSE. BY F. PELLATT, 

ESQ. 

Head at the Institution of Civil Engineers, London. 

The object of this paper is to direct attention to 
the properties of zinc as a protecting coating to 
iron; to describe the processes already employed 
for this purpose ; the reason of their failure ; and 
the peculiar adaptation of the electro-deposition of 
the metal for the end desired. 

It would be a needless waste of time to say any- 
thing regarding the superior value of iron as a ma- 
teria 1 ; but a few remarks respecting its chemical 
lnlluences may not be misplaced. 

The cause of iron becoming corroded is its superior 
affinity for oxygen. If the iron and water are both 
pure, this is not, indeed, found to be the case.; but 
under ordinary circumstances, neither of these exist 
in a state of purity. The iron, therefore, owing to 
its own impurity, and that of the water, is subject 



ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 153 

to a powerful destructive influence, which is best 
known to those most experienced in its use ; and 
there is no circumstance in which we can place iron 
to be free from the action of water, it being present 
in the air and earth. So powerfully is this metal 
affected in the earth, or in contact with some salts, 
that it loses all its essential properties, and is 
converted into a substance so soft that it may be 
scratched by a finger nail. These facts render it of 
the utmost importance that some means be obtained 
for its protection, which, at the same time, will not 
interfere with the natural properties of the iron. 
The substances hitherto used for protecting iron are 
tin and paint. These, as lasting coatings, are not 
effective. The tin being electrically negative to the 
iron, renders it a means of destruction, instead of 
protection; when any part of the iron is exposed. 
By the laws of electricity, when metals are in con- 
tact, the negative metal is protected at the expense 
of the positive. 

Circumstances, such as different chemical men- 
strua, may alter the relative electrical states of 
metals. But under all ordinary circumstances this 
rule holds good ; and zinc being the positive metal, 
it becomes, in consequence, a protector to the nega- 
tive metal, iron. This electrical property of zinc in 



154 <>N COVERING h:<>n with ZINC, 

connexion with iron and oilier metals, has induced 

those tO whom it was known, io recommend it as a 

coatings The difficulty hitherto lias been the ob- 

taining of zinc pure, and the application of it with- 
out injuring the texture of the iron. 

From the known qualities of zino, it has been 

lately nmeh employed lor various purposes, but has 

entirely disappointed the expectations formed from 
its propertioS. The reason of this is, that no zinc 
of commerce is pure, and that, the impurities 
existing are destructive to it, from the electrical 

law we have alluded to. The impurities existing, 

more or loss, in all zinc, are lead, iron, arsenic, and 
one or two other metals, all <)\' which arc electrically 

negative to zinoj the consequence being that every 

atom of impurity, in connexion with the zinc, forms 
a, galvanic battery of many thousands, or rather 

millions, of pairs of plates, the impurities being pro- 
tected, and the zinc destroyed. 

It has no doubt surprised many who have made 
use of zinc, to find it in a few weeks or months, 
aOCOrding to circumstances, perforated with small 
holes, and completely destroyed. We say according 
to circumstances, because the ordinary time zinc 
lasts depends not only on the amount of impurities 
OOntained in it, but also on the exciting fluid to 



on COYEBING IKON WlTir ZINO. Hift 

which it is subjected. Exposed to tlie action of 
water from the atmosphere, the destructive influence 
operates comparatively slowly ; but with more ex- 
citing fluids very rapidly. 

I'll us, a roof erected in the neighbourhood of a 
vinegar distillery, was completely destroyed in six 
Weeks; and vessels used for dairy purposes have 
lasted but a very short time, owing to the presence 
of acids — these causing a rapid galvanic action be- 
tween the zinc and its impurities. It is then quite 
evident that impure zinc : being itself valueless, can- 
not afford protection to any other metal. Now, tho 
only process yet in use for the purpose of coating iron 
with zinc, is that of immersing the iron in melted zinc. 
This we conceive open to many objections. The iron 
by tiiis process being raised to a temperature of at 
least 800°, causes it to combine with ihe zinc, form- 
ing an alloy on the surface, which changes its state, 
and becomes brittle. But upon this subject, we 
shall refer to the report made by M. Dumas to the 
French Academy. JJe says — 

"The zincing of iron, made by steeping iron in a 
bath of melted zinc, has many inconveniences ; be- 
sides, the iron combining with the zinc, constitutes 
a \cry brittle, superficial alloy. The iron loses its 
tenacity— a circumstance which is not perceived. 



J 56 ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 

however, except in trying to zinc fine iron wire, or 
very thin plate. Besides, the surface, being covered 
with a layer of not very fusible metal, is always ill- 
formed. Thus, fine iron wire cannot be zinced by 
this process, as it becomes fragile and deformed ; 
bullets cannot be zinced, as they become misshapen, 
and no longer of the same calibre." 

We have reason to believe that very nice manipu- 
lations, and annealing the iron after zincing, may 
remove some of M. Dumas' objections to this pro- 
cess. Still, two fatal objections, in our opinion, 
would exist to its use : first, the impossibility of ob- 
taining pure zinc, except at an enormous expense, 
the only process being sublimation or distillation; 
and secondly, the impossibility of retaining its 
purity, during the process of applying it to iron. 

Setting aside the fact of an alloy of iron and zinc 
being produced by the action of heated iron immersed 
in melted zinc, the presence of foreign matter neces- 
sary to retain the zinc in fusion, renders it impure ; 
these matters forming less fusible compounds, and 
zinc being very volatile, a great amount of waste is 
created. 

But it is well known to all those acquainted with 
the deposition of metals from soluble salts by the 
electro process, that pure metal only is deposited ; 



ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 157 

so that this process is not open to the objection upon 
this head, which may be made to every other, more 
especially in treating a metal of so intractable a 
character as zinc. It is also applicable to all sizes 
and shapes of work, requires no expensive erections, 
and, what is important in large operations, may be 
performed anywhere, and by any person. 

Although the protecting influence of zinc (we of 
£ourse speak of pure zinc) upon other metals is 
practically unknown, it has been well known to men 
of science ; and we shall take the liberty of quoting 
the opinions of some of the best chemists upon the 
subject ; bearing in mind that zinc is electrically 
positive to other metals, and as such protects them 
from oxidation at a very trifling loss to itself — and 
that, by a well known law of electrical science, one 
body being electrically excited, that body induces 
its opposite state in other bodies with which it is in 
contact. Keeping these three points in view, we 
would call attention to the following opinions : — Dr. 
Kane says, " Zinc preserves the other metals, even 
if it be iron, from oxidation ;" and, again, " Zinc, 
when exposed to the air even in presence of water, 
becomes covered with a varnish of a gray substance, 
probably a definite sub-oxide, which is not further 
14 



158 ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 

altered by exposure." Professor Graham, alluding 
to iron in water, says, " Articles of iron may be 
completely defended from the injury occasioned in 
this way, by the more positive metal zinc, while the 
protecting metal itself washes away slowly ;" and 
further, when speaking of zinc, " When exposed to 
air, or placed in water, its surface becomes covered 
with a gray film of sub-oxide, which does not 
increase ; and this film is better calculated to resist 
both the mechanical and chemical effects of other 
bodies than the metal itself, and preserves it." And 
Professor Daniel, in his new work, says, " That a 
plate of pure zinc, when immersed in water, speedily 
becomes dulled by the formation of a thin coat of 
oxide ; but the oxidation proceeds no further, be- 
cause the adhesion of the metal prevents a renewed 
contact of the metal and the water." 

From these authorities we notice that pure zinc 
has a double protecting influence, the iron being 
protected by the zinc, and the zinc by its own oxide, 
besides that peculiar galvanic influence induced by 
the positive state of the zinc with respect to the 
iron. With regard to the peculiar adaptation of the 
electro processes to the zincing of iron, we shall 
again quote from M. Dumas' Report. He says, 
4 Manufacturers, and those concerned in military 



ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 159 

affairs and the fine arts, will learn with interest that 
these processes enahle us to zinc, in an economical 
manner, iron, steel, and cast iron, by means of the 
pile or battery, with the solution of zinc, by operat- 
ing without heat, and consequently not interfering 
with the tenacity of the metal ; by applying it in 
thin layers, and by thus preserving the general forms 
of the pieces, and even the appearance of their 
minutest details. The thinnest plate may receive 
tMs preparation without becoming brittle, and may 
»e turned to account in roofing buildings." 

We hope these authorities fully support what we 
have asserted, that pure zinc affords a perfect pro- 
tection to iron, is not itself susceptible of rapid de- 
cay, and is easily applicable to the electro process. 
We are aware that other opinions upon this subject 
have been given ; some have almost denied its gal- 
vanic influence, and have reduced it to what they 
term a mere " tendency " whilst others have much 
overstated it. Effects which may be witnessed every 
day, prove that there is a secret galvanic agency at 
work when metals are in contact. Take, for in- 
stance, the decay of iron when in contact with lead. 
Every one has observed that iron railings let into 
stone work with lead, are much decayed within a 



100 ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 

short space of the contact of these two metals, whik 
the remaining portion is comparatively sound. This 
effect is from the iron being positive to the lead, 
which is therefore protected at the expense of the 
iron. 

It is matter of regret that zinc cannot be used with 
the same protecting property to articles in use at sea. 
This arises from its strong affinity for muriatic acid, 
thereby forming muriate of zinc, which being readily 
soluble is taken off by the water, leaving a new sur- 
face of zinc to be acted on, thus rapidly destroying 
the zinc. 

In situations where the articles are not exposed 
to the run of salt water, the zinc will be found a 
protection. 

The zinced iron solders readily. All other metals 
may be treated by this process for ornamental pur- 
poses. Copper will be found very useful. The de- 
positions by alkaline solutions are perfectly firm, 
and not subject to the objection to which those made 
by acid solutions are; these being always insecure 
from the formation of an oxide upon the iron, in- 
duced by the acid of the solution. The deposited 
copper may be bronzed or gilt, and will be found 
most useful for ornamental work. 



ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. id 

Many specimens of zinced iron, some of whict 
had been exposed to the action of the weather for 
months, were exhibited to the meeting, as wel! sa 
specimens of iron coated with copper by the s*m< 
process. 



14* 



162 



WATER IN PIPES. 



WATER IN PIPES. 

This table shows the quantity and weight of 
water contained in one fathom of length of pipes of 
different bores from 1 inch to 12 inches in diameter, 
advancing by J inch. The weight of a cubic foot 
of water is taken at 1000 ounces avoirdupois, and 
the imperial gallon at 10 lbs. 



Diameter in 


Quantity in 


Quantity in Im- 


Weight in lbs. 


inches. 


Cubic inches. 


perial gallons. 


Avoird. 


1 
2 


14.14 


0.051 


0.51 


1 


56.55 


0.205 


2.05 


1* 


127.23 


0.460 


4.60 


2 


226.19 


0.818 


8.18 


H 


353.43 


1.278 


12.78 


3 


508.94 


1.841 


18.41 


31 

6 i 


692.72 


2.506 


25.06 


4 


904.78 


3.272 


32.72 


41 


1145.11 


4.142 


41.42 


5 


1413.72 


5.113 


51.13 




1710.60 


6.187 


61.87 


6 


2035.75 


7.363 


73.63 


6* 


2389.18 


8.641 


86.41 


7 


2770.88 


10.022 


100.22 


7£ 


3180.86 


11.505 


115.05 


8 


3619.11 


13.090 


130.90 


8£ 


4085.64 


14.777 


147.77 


9 


4580.44 


16.567 


l 165.67 


H 


5103.52 


18.459 


184.59 


10 


5654.87 


20.453 


204.53 


10$ 


6234.49 


22.550 


225.50 


n 


6842.39 


24.748 


247.48 


ii* 


7478.56 
8143.01 


27.049 


270.49 


12 


29.452 


294.52 




ON CRUCIJLES. v 163 

\^ 'u 

I 

ON CRUCIBLES. v$ 

• 

The manufacture of crucibles is a branch of the 
potter's art, requiring great care to insure success ; 
and until lately, was at the best a very uncertain 
process. The chief requisites in a good crucible are, 
refractoriness in the strongest heats, capability of 
withstanding the corrosive effects of any substances 
that may be ignited in them, and the effects of sud- 
den alterations of temperature. They must also be 
composed of a material sufficiently solid in its texture 
to prevent the r assage of the solid metal through its 
poree. 

The composition producing pots of the best qua- 
lity is formed by pure fire clay mixed with finely 
ground cement of old crucibles, to which is added a 
portion of black lead or plumbago. The clay is pre- 
pared in the same manner as observed in pottery 
generally. The vessels, after being worked to the 
proper conical shape, are slowly dried, and then 
baked in a kiln. 

The composition used in the Royal Foundry of 
Berlin is formed of eight parts in bulk of Stour- 
bridge clay and cement, five of coke, and four of 



164 ON CRUCIBLES. 

graphite or plumbago. Crucibles manufactured from 
this mixture are capable of withstanding the greatest 
possible heat in which wrought iron melts, being 
equal to from 150° to 155° Wedgewood. They also 
bear sudden cooling without cracking. In the Ber- 
lin foundry they have been employed for twenty- 
three consecutive meltings of seventy-six pounds of 
iron each, which perhaps is the most complete and 
trying test that could be adopted. 

Another composition is as follows : — 8 pounds 
Stourbridge clay, 4 pounds burned clay cement, 2 
pounds coke powder, and 2 pounds pipe clay ; the 
whole being compressed in moulds while in a pasty 
state. 

The Hessian crucibles from Great Almerode and 
Epterode, resist the action of fluxes, and are tole- 
rably lasting. They are made from a fire clay con- 
taining a small amount of iron, but no lime. This 
is incorporated with silicious sand. These crucibles 
are rather porous, but they resist the effect of saline 
and leaden fluxes, and are not liable to crack, but 
they melt below the fusing point of bar iron. 

The black lead crucibles bear a much higher heat. 
Their composition is two parts of graphite and one 
of fire clay ; this is mixed into a pasty mass by 
means of water. The crucibles are baked slightly 



ON CRUCIBLES. 165 

in the kiln, but are not completely hardened until 
put in the furnace for use. They are of a smooth 
surface, and are consequently suitable for gold and 
the precious metals generally. These crucibles are 
perhaps the very best yet manufactured, and many 
of the brass founders throughout Europe, and, for 
aught I have yet seen to the contrary, all the brass 
founders of America, are adopting them in pre- 
ference to ordinary clay ones. 

Mr. Anstey's patent process for the manufacture 
of crucibles is as follows : — 2 parts of finely ground 
raw Stourbridge clay, and 1 part of the hardest gas 
coke, previously pulverized, and sifted through a 
sieve of one-eighth of an inch mesh, are mixed well 
together with water. This mixture is moulded on a 
revolving wooden block, somewhat similar to the 
process pursued in pot throwing, a gauge being 
used to regulate the thickness of the pot, and a cap 
of linen placed upon the core previous to the appli- 
cation of the clay, in order to prevent its adhering 
when removed. The pot is then dried in a gentle 
heat, and is not thoroughly completed until required 
for use. It is then warmed before a fire, and laid 
in the furnace, with the mouth downwards — the heat 
of the fire having been previously lowered by the 
application of fresh coke. It is gradually brought 



J 60 PLUMBAGO. 

up to a red heat, reversed, and fixed in its proper 
position in the furnace, and is then ready to receive 
the charge of metal. 



PLUMBAGO. 

Plumbago, or black lead, of which pencils are 
made, is a compound of iron and carbon, in the pro- 
portion of 9 parts carbon to 1 of iron. It has 
nothing similar to lead about it, unless its inquinat- 
ing property, by which paper is so readily marked. 
In this combination we have a metallic alloy less 
cohesive than almost any other substance, mercurial 
amalgam excepted; whilst the very same ingredients, 
in different proportions, produce another alloy, steel, 
which has properties diametrically opposite, as it 
is capable of cutting the hardest substances, with 
very few exceptions. The softest steel is harder 
than the hardest iron. 



HARDENING STEEL. 167 



HARDENING STEEL. 

The process of hardening steel is called temper- 
ing or attempering, and consists in that novel ar- 
rangement of the particles which is produced when 
steel, while hot, is plunged into cold liquids, as 
water. The colder the liquid, or the more sudden 
the operation of cooling, the harder will the steel 
be. 

Case-hardening is the superficial conversion of the 
surface of iron into steel, by heating it in contact 
with animal carbon, in close vessels. Bar iron is 
converted into steel in the same way, only that 
powdered charcoal is the substance in which it is 
imbedded. 



ON BORON. 

This is the basis of a substance which has been 
long and extensively used in the arts and in medi« 
cine, under the name of borax. It is found abund- 
antly in Thibet and in South America, but in a 



108 ON BORON. 

state too impure to be used without refining. This 
was long a secret process practised by the Venetians 
and Dutch, who imported the crude salt into Europe, 
under the name of tincal. 

Borax has a sweetish taste, and is "soluble in 
twelve parts of cold, and two parts of boiling water." 
Its crystals are transparent, but effloresce and be- 
come opaque in a dry atmosphere ; and they appear 
luminous by friction in the dark. 

It melts at a heat a little above that of boiling 
water, and gives out its water of crystallization, 
after which it forms a spongy mass, well known as 
calcined borax. When further heated to ignition, 
it passes into a glassy-looking substance, known as 
glacial borax. 

Boracic acid is obtained in unlimited quantity 
from the lakes of Tuscany. The water requires 
simply to be evaporated until the acid solution has 
been sufficiently concentrated to afford crystals. 
The acid thus obtained is chiefly taken to M. 
Pay en's works, at Marseilles, where it is manu- 
factured into borax. 

Dry borax, at a high temperature, has the re- 
markable property of melting and vitrifying the 
metallic oxides into glasses of different colours. On 
this account it is a most useful reagent for the blow 



ON BORON. 109 

pipe. With oxide of chrome it forms an emerald 
green glass, and with oxide of cobalt an intensely 
blue glass. 

Oxide of copper tinges it pale-blue ; oxides of iron, 
bottle-green ; oxide of tin, opal ; oxide of manganese, 
violet ; oxide of nickel, pale yellowish-green. "With 
the oxides of silver and zinc, and with several of the 
earths, it forms white enamels. 

Borax, in consequence of this property of vitrify- 
ing the metallic oxides, is used to clean the surface 
of metals, in processes of soldering with hard solder, 
and of welding cast steel. 

It is also valuable in the fusion of metals to pro- 
tect their surface from oxidizement. And it is worthy 
of remark, that, when mixed with shell-lac, in the 
proportion of one part to five, borax renders that 
resinous substance soluble in water, and forms with 
it a species of varnish. 



15 



170 ON SULPHUR. 



ON SULPHUR. 



Tins element, popularly known as brimstone, 
stands sufficiently well characterized by its brittle- 
ness, non-metallic appearance, and peculiar yellow 
colour. As a combustible it is universally known. 
Exposed to a temperature of 218° it melts almost 
into a liquid. When heated a few degrees higher, 
it becomes tenacious ; and when heated to the tem- 
perature of 300°, it takes fire, burns away with a 
lambent blue flame, and leaves no residuum. As 
the temperature rises the flame becomes more white ; 
and in pure oxygen gas the combustion goes on with 
great brilliancy. 

If, while melted and viscid, sulphur be pourert 
into cold water, it acquires somewhat the consist- 
ency of soft sealing-wax, and in this state it is very 
commonly used for taking impressions from seals 
and medals. 

Native sulphur is brought into this country chiefly 
from Sicily, where it occurs in beds of a blue clay 
formation, occupying the central half of the south 
coast of the island, and extending inwards as far as 
the district of Etna. Sulphur is also an abundant 
ingredient in various minerals : iron pyrites and 



ON SULPHUR. 171 

galena, sulphurets of iron and lead, are particularly 
abundant in some localities ; and at one time a large 
portion of the sulphur used in England was obtained 
from the copper pyrites of the mines of Anglesey. 
It was, however, less pure than the fine sulphur of 
Sicily, and other volcanic districts, being commonly 
mixed with arsenic and other metallic impregnations, 
which are difficult to separate. 

Sulphur is sometimes employed for cementing 
iron bars into stone ; and at present it is in repute 
for taking impressions of seals and cameos. When 
used for this purpose, it is commonly kept previously 
melted for some time, to give the casts the appear- 
ance of bronze. The principal consumption of it, 
however, is in the manufacture of sulphurie acid, 
gunpowder, and vermillion. 

When the end of a sulphur match is lighted, the 
flame emits copious fumes, which are a compound 
of oxygen and sulphur. These fumes are intensely 
acid to the taste ; they constitute what is called sul- 
phurous acid, the first of the combinations of sul- 
phur and oxygen. The gas has a strong affinity for 
the water, and the solution which it forms with it is 
known as liquid sulphurous acid. This, if left ex- 
posed to the air, absorbs more oxygen, and passes 
into sulphuric acid. 



178 SELENIUM. 

Sulphur also combines with hydrogen, forming 

the highly poisonous and offensive gas known as sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, and which not unfrotpiontly 

contaminates the coal gas supplied to us for illumi- 
nation. Sulphur and carbon also combine, and form 

a beautifully transparent and eolourless liquid, ex- 
ceedingly volatile, and giving off an odour the most 
foot id and nauseous which it is possible to conceive. 
Sulphur likewise enters into combination with metals, 
forming sulphurets, and is a most excellent tlux in 
the making of brazing solder. 



SELENIUM. 

Tins is a rare elementary substanee, nearly allied 
to sulphur in its properties, although it in some re- 
spects partakes oi' the nature of a metal. It was 
discovered by Berzelius, in 1817, in the refuse of 
an oil of vitriol manufactory, where it was derived 
from the iron pyrites employed in the works, and 
which contain a mixture in very minute proportions 
of a similar compound of selenium and iron. It has 
also been found sparingly in combination with seve- 



ON CHLORINE. 173 

ml other metals, as lead, cobalt, copper, and bis- 
muth ; and with sulphur, in the volcanic products 
of the Lipari Islands. 

It is separated from its combinations with diffi- 
culty, and hitherto only in minute quantities. When 
obtained free of admixture, selenium, at common 
temperatures, is brittle, solid, of a reddish-brown 
colour, and metallic lustre, without taste or smell. 
But when finely powdered the powder assumes a 
deep-red, inclined to purple. It softens at the tem- 
perature of 180° ; is pasty at 200°, and melts at a 
few degrees above the boiling point of water. When 
warm it exhales a strong odour of decayed horse- 
radish, and is so ductile that it may be drawn into 
threads, which are red by transmitted, but gray by 
reflected light. It boils at 600°, and in close vessels 
throws off deep-yellow vapours, which condense into 
black, metallic-looking drops. 



ON CHLORINE. 



Chlorine enters into numerous highly important 

and interesting combinations. Various bodies, when 

immersed in it when in a liquid state (that is, when, 
15* 



171 



ON CIIL0111NI3 



submitted bo Bi prosBure of four atmospheres, it b6< 
oomes Bi yellow transparent liquid)} take fire sponta 
neously. A oandle burns in it with a red flame, and 
a pieoe of phosphorus introduced into it) burns with 
a pale white light. Copper, tin, zinc, antimony, and 
arsenic, when introduced into it in their leaves, or 
roduoed to filings, take fire, and) oombining with ili<: 
gas, form oompounds analogous to the oxides, and 
which are therefore oalled ohlorides* Mercury also 
enters rapidly into combination with it, forming 
chloride of mercury, a substanoe better Known as 
corrosive sublimate. 
The grand source of ohlorine is the water of the 

OCOan. This LS :«n enormous solution of xitlt — a 

universally Known and indispensable artiole 6f eon 
sumption with the human raoej an article) indeed, 
whioh seems to be essentially neoessary t<> maintain 
the body in a healths condition! Now this suit is a 
oompound of ohlorine and a metal* It is, in faet, a 

eldoride, consist in*-;, when pure, of 60 of eliloiine, 
and 40 of sodium, in 100 pails; and whether it be 

obtained by evaporation of sea water, or be dug <>nt 
of the sail mines of Wieliczka or Northwich, it has 

the same eomposit ion. 



METALLIC OXIDES. 175 



Bomb of the minerals contain but one earth ; but 
minerals are found in which the earths are combined 
in different proportions, \>y prooesses wlii<;li produce 
that apparently endless variety <>i" objects which 
mineral nature presents for our contemplation* 

Science has of Late years demonstrated that none 
of the earths are simple substances, that is, chemical 
elements. Sir Humphrey Davy has proved that 
none of them are entitled to that character, that 
they are in fact compounds of certain metals with 
oxygen —that \4 f metallic oxides. Thin has been 
shown l>y tin: very direct method of abstracting 
oxygen from them, and thereby separating the me 
tallic base. Thus, alumina (being the basis of alum) 
i the oxide of a gray and hard metal like platinum, 
and which hums with great brilliancy when heated 
with access of nit-, and reproduces til'; earth by ab 
sorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. 

h is very singular that soda, as distinguished from 
potai It, has been known with us only of late years; 
whereas it was familiar to the Greeks and Hebrews. 

It, was alSO known in Egypt, where it is found na- 
tive, and IS known }>y the name of fldtrOfl whieh 



176 METALLIC OXIDES. 

occurs in the Bible. Thus Jeremiah speaks of wash- 
ing in natron.* 

From the preceding summary we may reckon 
ourselves justified in concluding that the solid strata 
of our globe — that is, the superficial shell with which 
we are acquainted, if not the vast mass of the globe 
itself — are nothing more than masses of metals of 
different kinds, disguised by oxygen : that they are 
in fact oxides, and bear evidence, in many cases, of 
being the products of combustion. 

* Jeremiah, ii. 22. 



A P P E N D I X. 



(177) 



AN APPENDIX 



USEFUL AND VALUABLE RECEIPTS. 



TO BROWN GUN BARRELS. 

Take of nitric acid, half an ounce ; sweet spirit 
of nitre half an ounce; blue vitriol, two ounces; 
tincture of steel, one ounce. Mix all together in 
eight gills of water. Apply this mixture with a 
sponge, then heat the barrel a little, and move the 
oxide with a hard brush. This operation may be 
repeated a third and fourth time, till you have the 
brown required. 

It is then to be carefully wiped, and sponged with 

boiling water, in which there has been put a small 

quantity of potass. The barrel being taken from 

the water, must be made perfectly dry, and then 

rubbed smooth with a burnisher of hard wood; 

afterwards heated to the height of boiling water 

and varnished with the following varnish : — 

(179) 



180 VARNISH FOR GUN BARRELS. 

Varnish for gun barrels that have undergone the 
process of browning. 

Take of spirits of wine two parts, dragon's blood, 
powdered, three drachms ; shell-lac bruised, one 
ounce ; dissolve all together. This varnish being laid 
on the barrel, and become perfectly dry, muat be 
rubbed with a burnisher to render it smooth and 
glossy. 



ETHEREAL SOLUTION OF GOLD. 

Saturate nitro-hydrochloric acid with pure gold. 
Crystallize, and with the crystals saturate water. 
Shake this aqueous solution in a phial with an equal 
volume of pure ether; then two fluids will result, 
the lighter of which is the ethereal solution of gold, 
and may easily be separated. This must be kept in 
a darkened bottle, as by exposure to light it quickly 
decomposes, flakes of gold being deposited. 

Any substance moistened with this will receive a 
coating of metallic gold, and hence metals may be 
rendered not liable to corrosion. 

Even in the dark it cannot be preserved long, 
but undergoes slow decomposition 



TINNING. 181 



TO COAT SMALL NAILS, ETC., WITH TIN. 

Put half an ounce of powdered tin (which may 
be procured of any operative chemist), into a com- 
mon Florence flask, pour on about two ounces of 
concentrated muriatic acid, and boil over a spirit 
lamp until the tin is dissolved. When cool, pour 
into any convenient vessel and dilute with about an 
equal bulk of pure water. Drop in the nails required 
to be coated, holding the vessel so that they may all 
fall to one side. Immerse a piece of sheet-copper 
into the solution, as far apart from the nails as pos- 
sible, and connect it with the latter by means of a 
piece of copper wire. The effect of this arrange- 
ment is the developement of a current of voltaic 
electricity, which causes a rapid decomposition of the 
fluid, and the deposition of tin on the surface of the 
nails. After being subjected to this treatment for 
about an hour, the nails will be found to have re- 
ceived a thick coating of metal, and may then be 
removed from the liquid, dried, and polished. 

Recourse is frequently had to the above process 
for the purpose of coating the nibs of steel pens 
with tin, in order to prevent them from rusting. It 
succeeds better than any other method ever tried. 
16 



IS-2 BRONZING ELECTROTYPE CASTS, 



BRONHNG ELECTROTYPE CASTS, 

Chemical i>Ve/r:e. 

There are many modes of broniing employed m 

the arts ; the intent of each is to bring out the work- 
manship of the object. The selection is entirely a 
matter of taste. To prevent too great a sameness 
of appearance in a cabinet, it is, perhaps, better not 

.uithie oneself to a solitary method. 

» 

A chemical bronze may be made by boiling two 
ounces of carbonate of ammonia with one ounce of 
acetate of copper, in half a pint of vinegar, till the 
vinegar is nearly evaporated. Into this, pour a 
solution consisting of sixtv-two grains of muriate 
of ammonia, and fifteen grains ami a half of oxalic 
acid, in half a pint of vinegar. Replace the vessel 
on the tire till the contents boil ; when cold, strain 
through filtering paper : preserve the liquor for use. 
The remaining sediment may be again treated with 
another half pint of the solution. This preparation 
must only be applied to medals bright and clean. 

Dirty specimens may be polished by an article 
used in domestic economy, consisting of rotten- 
stone, soft soap, and water. The medal is to be 



BRONZING ELECTROTYPE CASTS. 183 

well rubbed with a hard brush dipped in this. Care 
must be taken not to scratch the medal. It must 
afterwards be washed in water and placed to dry ; 
when dry, the application of the leather and plate- 
brush will produce the required polish. Medals may 
also be cleansed by dipping them in nitric acid, 
either concentrated or diluted. Wax and grease 
may be removed by boiling in pearl-ash and water, 
or by pouring the boiling ley on the medals. 

In applying the bronze, first warm the medal, then 
dip a camel-hair pencil into the liquor and brush the 
surface for half a minute ; immediately after, pour 
boiling water over it. Directly the medal is dry, 
rub its surface lightly with soft cotton very slightly 
moistened in linseed oil. Gentle friction with a 
piece of dry cotton will finish the operation. The 
colour produced by this means is red ; its tints vary 
according to circumstances. Medals bronzed thus 
must be examined occasionally before they are con- 
signed to the cabinet ; for if perchance the vinegar 
has not been perfectly washed away, they will be 
disfigured by the formation of a green powder, — the 
acetate of copper. Should this occur, it may be 
removed by means of the moist and dry cotton. 



184 BLACK LEAD BRONZE. 



BLACK LEAD BRONZE. 

A very beautiful bronze is obtained by the simple 
application of plumbago. It is obtained in a few 
minutes, and with very little trouble. The tint ob- 
tained seems much to depend on the state of the 
surface of the original medal. Copies of some 
medals "take" the black lead better than those of 
others. To produce the tint in the greatest perfec- 
tion, the operation should be performed immediately 
after the medal is separated from the mould. Bright 
specimens from fusible moulds are best, but all others 
may be thus treated ; those taken from wax should 
be cleansed with pearlash or soda. 

The bronze is obtained by brushing the surface 
of the medal with plumbago, then placing it on a 
ciear fire till it is made too hot to be touched, and 
applying a plate brush so soon as it ceases to be hot 
enough to burn the brush. A few strokes of the 
brush will produce a dark brown polish, approaching 
black, but entirely distinct from the well known 
appearance of black lead. If the same operation is 
performed on a medal that has been kept some days, 
or upon one that has been polished, a different, but 
verv brilliant tint is produced. The colour is 



TO TTN IRON. J 85 

between red and brown. The richness of colour 
thus produced is by many preferred to the true dark 
brown. 



CARBONATE OF IRON BRONZE. 

Beautiful tints are produced by using plate- 
powder or rouge. After moistening with water, it 
is applied and treated in precisely the same manner 
as the plumbago. 



TO TIN IRON. 

Metal to be tinned must be cleansed, if new work, 
by putting it in a pickle — a mixture of sulphuric 
acid and water — then scoured with sand, and cleansed 
in water : but if old, the pickle should be a mixture 
of muriatic acid and water. It is then ready for 
tinning. 

The article should be placed on the fire, and suf- 
ficient heat applied to melt the tin. Care should be 
taken that too great a heat should not be applied, or 

the article will be burned. It must be rubbed well 
16* 



1HU 



i.ioiiih QLUB A N l » rii;r, (L \\ 



wiili Qi piece of sal : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 < > 1 1 1 .- 1 < - plaoed between two 

uirr::, likewise BOI&6 powder Sprinkled 1 1 ] >• > 1 1 il, |o 

koop Mif metal from oxidating, Apply the tin, wipe 

it over willi a piece of low, llien llir work [g I i i i i s I i t m L 



LIQUID GLUD, 

Shell lag dissolved in wood aaptho (the pyroxilio 
spirit of the ohomists, and the naptha of the <>il and 
colour shops) makes good liquid glue, water proof, 
and not requiring the application of heat* A quarter 
of m pound avoirdupois of shell lac to be dissolved in 
tnree ounoes of naptha, apothecaries' measure. Put 
the former into :»• wide-mouthed bottle j pour the 
latter upon it, and stir the mixture two or three 
times during the first thirty six hours. 



\i; TU'ici n, I'lKi: n, w 



The fusibility of common clay arises from the pre- 
sence of mi | 'mi i irs, such :is lime, iron, and magnesia. 
These substances may be easily removed by steeping 



A VALUABLE CEMENT, 1h7 

in hot muriatic acid, then washing with water, and 
drying. Excellent crucibles may be made from 
common clay prepared in this manner. 



A CEMENT WHICH RESISTS THE action OF FIRE AND 

WATER. 

Take half a pint of milk, mix with it an equal 
quantity of vinegar, so as to coagulate the milk; 
separate the curds from the whey, and mix the lat- 
ter with the whites of lour or five eggs, well beaten 
up. The mixture of these two substances being 
complete, add to them quick lime, which 1ms been 
passed through a sieve; make the whole into a thick 
paste, to be of the consistence of putty when used. 

This cement has been applied to close the fissure 
of an iron cauldron for the boiling of pitch, and 
which lias been in use for five years without requir- 
ing further repairs. 



188 CEMENT FOR THE JOINTS OF CAST IRON. 



CEMENT FOR THE JOINTS OF CAST IRON. 

Take of cast iron borings, 20 pounds ; flour of 
sulphur, 2 ounces ; muriate of ammonia, 1 ounce ; 
mix intimately in the dry state, and then add a suf- 
ficient quantity of warm water to render the whole 
quite wet. Press the mass together in a lump, and 
allow it to remain until such time as the combined 
action of the materials renders it quite hot, in which 
state it must be hammered, with proper tools, into 
the joints. 



NIELLO-METALLIC ORNAMENTS. 

Cover the object to be ornamented with an etch- 
ing ground similar to that employed by copper-plate 
engravers ; draw the ornament with a needle, and 
etch it by means of a corrosive acid ; then carefully 
remove the etching ground with the proper dissolv- 
ing fluids (such as oil of turpentine, ether, &c), and 
afterwards wash the object quite clean, and set for 



NIELLO-METALLIC ORNAMENTS, ETC. 189 

a moment with a weak acid. Place it now in a gal- 
vano-plastic apparatus, and leave it until it becomes 
galvano-plastically covered, that is, all the etched 
lines filled up. When all the lines and cavities are 
completely filled up in this way, and the deposit in 
them is equally high as, or yet higher than, the 
plain surface, the object must be taken out of the 
galvano-plastic apparatus, and the metallic layer, 
which has been raised by the operation, ground or 
planed off until brought to the same level with the 
metal of the object, leaving the etched lines or cavi- 
ties full. 

Of course, the metal of the object to be orna- 
mented and the metallic deposit must be different. 
The effect produced is extremely pretty, and the 
means cheap and simple. 



TRACING PAPER. 



Mix six parts (by weight) of spirits of turpentine, 
one of resin, one of boiled nut oil, and lay on with 
either a brush or sponge. 



1<X) TO FIX DRAWINGS. 



TO FIX DRAWINGS. 

A method which is equally simple and ingenious, 
of giving to drawings in pencils and crayons the 
fixidity of painting, and without injury, is obtained 
by spreading over the back of the paper an alcoholic 
solution of white gum-lac. This solution quickly 
perpetrates the paper, and enters even into the marks 
of the crayon on the other side. 

The alcohol rapidly evaporates, so that in an 
instant all the light dust from the crayons and chalk, 
which resembles that on the wings of a butterfly, 
adheres so firmly to the paper, that the drawing may 
be rubbed and carried about without the least par- 
ticle being effaced. 

The following are the accurate proportions of the 
solution : 10 parts of common gum-lac are dissolved 
in 120 parts of alcohol; the liquid is afterwards 
bleached with animal charcoal. 

For the same purpose may be used even the ready- 
made paint that can be purchased at the colour 
stores, containing a sixth of white-lac, and adding 
two-thirds of rectified spirits of wine. After it has 
been filtered, there is nothing further to be done 



USEFUL RECEIPTS. 191 

than to spread a layer of either of these solutions 
at the back of the drawing, in order to give them 
the solidity required. 



ANTIDOTE TO ARSENIC. 



Magnesia is an antidote to arsenic, equally effi- 
cacious with peroxide of iron, and preferable to it, 
inasmuch as it is completely innocuous in almost any 
quantity, and can be procured in any form. 



TO SOFTEN IVORY. 

Slice half a pound of mandrake and put it into 
a quart of the best vinegar, into which immerse your 
ivory. Let it stand in a warm place for 48 hours, 
and you will then be enabled to bend the ivory into 
any required form. 



TO SEPARATE the metallic portion from gold 

AND SILVER LACE. 

Immerse the lace for a short time in nitric acid. 



liM lU.l BIN Q AND GILDING Mil I 



nil KING am> GILDING STEEL, 

'rue mode employed in blueing steel is merely to 
subject it to heat, The dark blue is produoed at a 
temperature of 600°, the full blue at 500°, and the 
blue at 550°, 

Steel may be gilded bj the Following process: to 
a solution of the muriale of gold, add nearly as 
much sulphurio ether. The ether reduces the gold 

to a metallic state ami keeps it in solution, while the 

muriatic aoid separates, deprived of its gold, and 

forms a distinet fluid. Put the steel to he gilded 
into the ether, which speedily eyaporates, depositing 
a eeat of gold en the metal hy dint of the attraction 

between them. After the steel has been immersed 

it should be dipped into eold water, and the burni>her 
should be applied, whioh strengthens its adhesion. 

Figures, Bowers, and all descriptions of ornaments 

ami devices, may be drawn on the steel by using the 
ether with a tine eamel-hair pencil, er writing pen. 



TO U V.X 



.eel dies. 

A i 200 gallons of water, it U 

t of 40 feel . in 

vrhich the .1. From thi- 

. water . through a pipe of one in 

I a qua: :/-j with torn, 

and nozzles of different sizes to regular . iia- 

of the jet of water. Under one of t'. 

■rater being directed on 
to the centre of the upper surface. By t:: 

e is hardened in a way a iin the 

pressure to which it is to he su : and the 

middle of the face, which by the old pi 
apt to remain soft, now becomes the hardest part. 
The hardened part of the dies so managed, 
to .rate'], would be found to be in the Beg- 

ot of a sphere, resting in the low -r part, 

ia a dish, the hardness, of course, gradually de- 
.asing as you descend towards the foot. D 
thus hardened, preserve their form till fairly worn 

out. 

17 



lUi TORTABLE GLUE, ETC. 



PORTABLE GLUE. 

Boil one pound of the best Russian glue, and 
strain. Then add half a pound of brown sugar, and 
boil thick. "When cold, the compound maybe poured 
into small moulds, and afterwards cut into pieces. 

This glue is very soluble in warm water, and is 
particularly useful to artists for fixing their drawing- 
paper to the board. 



PREVENTION OF CORROSION, 

The best means of preventing corrosion of metals 
is to dip the articles first into a very dilute nitric 
acid, to immerse them afterwards in linseed oil, and 
to allow the excess of oil to drain off. By this pro- 
cess metals are effectually prevented from rust or 
oxidation. 



CEMENT AND SOLUBLE GLASS. 195 



CEMENT. 



Mix ground white lead with as much finely-pow- 
dered red lead as will make it of the consistence of 
soft putty. 



SOLUBLE GLASS. 

What is called soluble glass is now beginning to 
come into use as a covering for wood and other 
practical purposes. It is composed of 15 parts of 
powdered quartz, 10 parts of potash, and 1 part of 
charcoal. 

These are melted together, worked in cold water, 
and then boiled with 5 parts of w T ater, in which it 
entirely dissolves. It is then applied to wood-work, 
or any other required substance. As it cools it 
gelatinises, and dries up into a transparent, colour- 
less glass, on any surface to which it has been ap- 
plied. It renders wood nearly incombustible. 



196 JAPANNING. 



JAPANNING. 

First. Provide yourself with a small muller and 
stone, to grind any colour that you may require. 

Secondly. Prepare yourself with white hard var- 
nish, brown varnish, turpentine varnish, Japan gold 
size, and spirit of turpentine, which you may keep 
in separate bottles until required. 

Thirdly. Provide yourself with flake white, red 
lead, vermillion, lake, Prussian blue, king's and 
patent yellow, orpiment, spruce and brown ochre, 
mineral green, verditer, burnt umber, and lamp- 
black. 

Observe that all wood-work must be prepared 
with size, and some coarser material mixed with it, 
in order to fill up and harden the grain of the wood 
— such, indeed, as may best suit the colour intended 
to be laid on — which must be rubbed smooth with 
glass-paper when dry ; but in case of accident it is 
seldom necessary to resize the damaged places 
unless they are considerable. 

With the foregoing colours you may match always 
any one in use for japanning, always observing to 
grind your colours smooth in spirit <rf turpentine ; 



JAPANNING. 197 

add a small quantity of turpentine and spirit varnish, 
and lay it carefully on with a camel's-hair brush, 
then varnish with brown or white spirit varnish, 
according to colour. 

For a black, mix up a little size and lamp-black, 
and it will bear a good gloss without varnishing 
over. To imitate black rosewood, a black ground 
must be given to the wood, after which take some 
finely levigated red lead, mixed up as before directed, 
and lay on with a flat, stiff brush, in imitation of 
the streaks in the wood ; after which take a small 
quantity of lake, ground fine, and mix it with brown 
spirit varnish, carefully observing not to have more 
colour in it than will just tinge the varnish ; but 
should it happen on trial to be still too red, you 
may easily assist it with a little umber, ground very 
fine, with which pass over the whole of the work 
intended to imitate black rosewood, and it will have 
the desired effect. If the work be done by a good 
japanner, according to the foregoing rules, it will, 
when varnished and polished, scarcely be distin- 
guished from the real wood. 



17* 



198 TO PRESERVE POLISHED STEEL, ETC. 



TO PRESERVE POLISHED STEEL FROM RUST. 

Mix some oil with caoutchouc; melt in a close 
teasel, stirring to prevent burning. A high tem- 
perature will be required. This will form a perfect 
air-proof skin over the surface, which may very 
easily be removed by brushing with warm oil of 
turpentine. 



CEMENT FOR ATTACHING METAL TO GLASS. 

Take two ounces of a thick solution of glue, 
and mix with one ounce of linseed oil varnish, or 
three-quarters of an ounce of Venice turpentine. 
Boil together, agitating until the mixture becomes 
as intimate as possible. The pieces cemented should 
be fastened together for the space of forty-eight oj 
sixty hours. 



VARNISHES. 19! 



VARNISH FOR COLOURED DRAWINGS. 

Canada balsam, one ounce ; oil of turpentine, Mk,* d 
ounces. Dissolve. Size the drawings first with a 
jelly of isinglass, and when dry apply the varnish, 
which will make them look like oil paintings. 



JAPANNERS COPA VARNISH. 

Take of the best pale African copal, seven pounds ; 
fuse ; add two quarts of clarified linseed oil. Boil 
for a quarter of an hour, remove it into the open 
air, and add three gallons of boiling oil of turpen- 
tine. Mix well, then strain into the cistern, and 
cover up immediately. 



SOFT VARNISH. 



Callot's soft varnish for etching : — linseed oil, 
four ounces ; and half an ounce each of gum benzoin 
and white wax. Boil to two-thirds. 



2(H) VABNISHES. 






HARD VARNISH. 



Callot's hard varnish for etching : — Take four 
ounces each of linseed oil and mastic, and melt to- 
ut'! her. 



FLEXIBLE VARNISH. 
Flexible varnish for balloons, &c. : — India-rubber 



'j 



in shavings, one ounce ; mineral naptha, two pounds. 
Digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel until dis- 
solved, then strain. 



FRENCH POLISH. 

Dissolve one part of gum-mastic, and one part 
of gum-sandarach, in forty parts of spirits of wine, 
and then add three parts of shell-lac. This process 
may be performed by putting the ingredients into a 
'.oosely corked bottle, and then placing it in a vessel 



VARNISHES. 201 

of water a little below 173° Fahrenheit, or the boil- 
ing point of spirits of wine, until the solution be 
effected. 



BRUNSWICK BLACK. 

Foreign asphaltum, forty-five pounds ; drying 
oil, six gallons ; and litharge, six pounds. Boil for 
two hours, then add dark gum amber (fused), eight 
pounds ; hot linseed oil, two gallons. Boil for two 
hours longer, or until a little of the mass, when 
cooled, may be rolled into pills. Then withdraw 
the heat, and afterwards thin down with twenty-five 
gallons of oil of turpentine. Used for iron-work, &c. 



MORDANT VARNISH. 



Take one ounce of mastic, one ounce of sanda- 
rach, half an ounce of gum-gamboge, and a quarter 
of an ounce of turpentine. Dissolve in six ounces 
of spirits of turpentine. 



202 VARNISHES 



ANOTHER. 

Place a quantity of boiled oil in a pan, and sub- 
ject it to a strong heat. When a disengagement of 
black smoke takes place, set it on fire, and in a few 
moments extinguish it, by covering over the pan. 
Then pour the matter while heated into a bottle, 
previously warmed, adding to it a little oil of tur- 
pentine. 



ANOTHER. 



Mix asphalte and drying oil, diluted with oil of 
turpentine. For bronzing, or very pale gilding. 



ANOTHER. 



Take a quantity of camphorated copal varnish, 
and add a little red lead. 



VARNISHES. 20& 



ANOTHER. 



Dissolve a little honey in thick glue. For gild- 
ing, &c. 



SUPERIOR GREEN TRANSPARENT VARNISH. 

The beautiful, transparent green varnish em- 
ployed to give a fine glittering colour to gilt or 
other decorated work, may be prepared as follows : 
Grind a small quantity of Chinese blue with about 
double the quantity of finely powdered chromate of 
potash, and a sufficient quantity of copal varnish 
thinned with turpentine. The mixture requires the 
most elaborate grinding or incorporating, otherwise 
it will not be transparent, and therefore useless for 
the purpose to which it is intended. The "tone" 
of the colour may be varied by an alteration in the 
proportion of the ingredients. A preponderance of 
chromate of potash causes a yellowish shade in the 
green, as might have been expected; and vice versa 
with the blue, under the same circumstances. This 



204 VARNISHES. 

coloured varnish will produce a very striking effect 
in japanned goods, paper-hangings, &c, and can be 
made at a very cheap rate. 



ETCHING VARNISH. 

Take of white wax, two ounces ; and of black 
and Burgundy pitch, each half an ounce. Melt to- 
gether, adding by degrees two ounces of powdered 
asphaltum. Then boil until a drop taken out on a 
plate will break when cold, by being bent double 
two or three times between the fingers, when it must 
be poured into warm water, and made into small 
balls for use. 



SUPPLEMENT. 



ON rATTERN- MAKING— CONTRACTION OF METALS, ETC. 

It is necessary to make patterns in some degree 
larger than the intended castings, to allow for their 
contraction in cooling, which equals from about the 
ninety-fifth to the ninety-eighth part of the length, 
or nearly one per cent. This allowance is very 
easily and correctly managed by the employment 
of a contraction-rule, which is made like a sur- 
veyor's rod, but one-eighth of an inch longer in 
every foot than ordinary standard measures. By 
the employment of such contraction-rules every 
measurement of the pattern is made proportionally 
larger without any trouble of calculation. 

When a wood pattern is made, from which an 
iron pattern is to be made, the cast being intended 
to serve as the permanent foundry pattern, as there 
are two shrinkages to allow for, a double contrac- 
tion-rule is employed, or one the length of which 
is one-quarter of an inch in excess in every foot. 

These rules are particularly important in setting 
18 205 



206 ON PATTERN-MAKING, ETC. 

out alterations in, or additions to, existing ma 
chinery. The latter is measured with the common 
rule, and the new patterns are set out to the same 
nominal measures, with a single or double contrac- 
tion-rule, as the case may be — the three being made 
in some respects dissimilar, to avoid confusion in 
their use. The entire neglect of contraction-rules 
incurs additional trouble and uncertainty. The 
contraction of brass is nearly three-sixteenths of 
an inch in every foot, but from the small size of 
brass castings the contraction-rule is less required 
for them, as the differences may be easily allowed 
for without it. Iron castings weigh about fourteen 
times as much as the ordinary deal and fir patterns 
from which they are made — that being nearly the 
ratio of the specific gravities of those materials. 

In reference to the qualities of Iron, it may be 
worthy of remark, that the same mixture of iron 
will be found to differ very much according to the 
size of the objects in which it is cast. Iron which 
in a plate one-fourth of an inch thick may be quite 
brittle and hard, will mostly be of good, soft, and 
useful quality in a stout bar, or plate of two or 
three inches thick. Thick castings are necessarily 
slow in cooling, and are seldom very hard unless 
intentionally made so. 



CONDUCTING HEAT. 207 

Between tlie extremes (say three parts of pig- 
iron to one of old, or three parts of old iron to ono 
of pig-iron), various qualities may be selected. In 
castings for machinery, the general aim is to obtain 
a strong, sound, and tough iron. Mixtures of this 
nature which are used for iron ordnance, are called 
gun-metal amongst the gun-founders. 



CONDUCTING HEAT OF BRASS AND IRON. 

The power of conducting heat is considerably 
less, in red-hot iron, than in copper and brass; and 
therefore the moulds for the latter require to be in 
a drier condition than those which may be used for 
iron, But in either case, the presence of superfluous 
moisture is always attended with some danger to 
the individual, as well as to the work. Iron foun- 
ders may use their moulds with safety when sensi- 
bly more moist than is admissible for brass and 
copper castings. It is confirmatory of the fact, that 
the more dense the mould, the drier it must be — as 
the sand used by iron-founders is also coarser, and 
therefore more porous than that employed by 
brass-founders. 



208 



ON SAND-COKE MOULDING, ETC. 



VARIETIES OF TOMBAC. 



Copper... 
Zinc ..,. 

Tin 


1 

82-0 

18-0 

1-5 

3-0 

104-5 


2 

82 

18 

3 

1 

104 


3 

82-3 
17-5 


4 

80 
17 


5 

85 
15 


6 


7 

86 
14 


8 


9 

92 
8 


10 


85-3 
14-7 


90-0 
7-9 
1-6 


97-8 
2-2 


0-2 
100-0 


3 
100 


I'ce 
100 










100-0 


100 


99-5 


100 


100-0 





Nos. 1, 2, and 3, arc for making 1 gilt articles ; 4, French 
mixture for sword-handles, <fcc. ; 5, Okar metal near Goslar, 
in the Ilartz ; 6, Yellow tombac for Parisian gilt ornaments ; 
7, Hanoverian ; 8, Chryso chalk ; 9, Paris tombac ; and 10, 
the red tombac of Vienna. 



ON SAND-CORE MOULDING, BLACKENING, ETC. 

Amongst the great variety of work denominated 
green-sand moulding, much and varied contrivance 
is displayed in the structure of the moulds. In 
particular, the management of cores is a matter of 
very considerable importance, and the malformation 
of them is a prolific source of failure in the pro- 
duction of sound castings. 

Cores are especially useful for forming vacancies 
in castings. Their forms may be long, and pro- 
portionably small in diameter, or winding, and 



ON SAND-CORE MOULDING, ETC. 209 

otherwise intricate ; and seeing that they are neces- 
sarily surrounded by the metal when cast, they 
ought to have, as much as may be, the qualities of 
firmness of substance and openness of pores. Cores 
are commonly composed of rock-sand and sea-sand. 
The former having a proportion of clay in its 
composition, to which it owes its powerful cohe- 
siveness when dried, serves very well for short 
cores that rest on the green sand at both ends, as 
open communication with it is thus afforded for 
the free escape of the air in the interstices of the 
cores. 

But when rock-sand is used for cores of a con- 
siderable length (which, of course, are surrounded 
on all sides by the metal, except the small imbed- 
ded portions at the extremities, by which alone the 
air can escape), it requires to be moderated by the 
admixture of free-sand, as a counteractant to the 
clay. The clay communicates the necessary cohe- 
siveness to the material of the core ; the sand, on 
the contrary, loose and open, renders it less binding 
and more porous. Free-sand alone is also employed 
in the construction of confined cores, that they may 
afterward be easily extracted, as the sand has 
naturally no power of cohesion. 

Wanting cohesiveness, it must be tempered to a 

18* 



210 ON SAND-CORE MOULDING, ETC. 

proper consistency by the addition of clay and 
water, yeast, flour, or the refuse of pease-meal, used 
for light flat moulding purposes. In the use of 
the latter materials, it must be accurately propor- 
tioned to the sand with which it is mixed. The 
clay-water is, in ordinary cases, made use of as a 
cement, and the yeast only in very particular cir- 
cnmstances. For large compact masses of core, 
the common green sand may be used. 

The longer cores are stiffened by iron wires and 
small rods, which are bent, if necessary, to the form 
of the cores. These rods are dipped in clay- wash, 
and enveloped in the core in the progress of its 
formation, and are afterward extracted from the 
casting. The cores of considerable length are 
pierced longitudinally by wires for the "escape of 
the air ;? or in cases where this is impracticable, on 
account of bends or angles in the core, a piece of 
string is laid in the sand alongside the stiffening 
wires, which is afterward drawn out, when the core 
is dry, leaving its perforation behind it. With all 
these precautions, securing the strength of the cores 
and letting off the air, your castings have every 
chance of being good, and free from blow-holes. 
When the bearings of cores at the extremities are 
considered unfit for steadying them, they are fur- 



ON SAND-CORE MOULDING, ETC. 211 

ther sustained by staples struck into the sand at 
several places in their length, and projecting above 
it just as much as the thickness of metal, the core 
is placed upon them, and sustained steadily in its 
place. The staples are, of course, buried in the 
casting, and the projecting points outside cut off in 
the course of dressing it. Cbaplets are used to bear 
up cores having plain surfaces. Another set of 
chaplets, or staples, are placed in the cope, and well 
secured at the back, when the flask is closed, firmly 
fixed, and in contact with the upper half of the 
core. It is thus prevented from floating off its 
seat when immersed in the fluid metal, and pre- 
vented from springing. This is a matter of greater 
moment than the mere sustaining of the core from 
below, as will be apparent on considering the great 
difference of specific gravities of sand, dry loam, 
and iron or brass. 

In this case, the upward effective pressure of the 
fluid metal upon the core is proportional to the 
difference of their specific gravities, which, being 
so much in favor of metal, the pressure upward, 
sustained by the chaplets, cannot be much less than 
the weight of a body of metal of the same bulk as 
the core, for the support of which they are des- 
tined; in brass-founding particularly, great care 



212 ON SAND-CORE MOULDING, ETC. 

should be taken that tlic staples and chaplets are 
sufficiently strong. Should they be too slightly 
made, they will bend or melt before the hot metal, 
and prove entirely useless. This is too often neg- 
lected. 

Ordinary blaek-wash for cores consists of oak 
charcoal, powdered, and a little clay, diluted with 
horse-dung water. Blackening for moulds is often 
composed of finely ground plumbago, mixed with 
a little charcoal, the whole diluted with a solution 
of the soluble parts of horse-dung. This is fre- 
quently mixed with pease-meal, or other meal, glue, 
and extracts from the refuse of tanneries. But all 
these compositions are more or less too close, and 
cause a dull surface to the cast. The first is the 
best, if applied not too much diluted. Blackening, 
or a coating of carbon, will prevent the burning of 
the sand, and consequent roughness of the casting, 
as it fills the pores of the sand. A little plumbago 
mixed with it makes it more refractory still, and is 
very desirable where a great body of metal sur- 
rounds a small core. 

One part of clay mixed with nine parts of free- 
sand, or any other pure sand, is considered suffi- 
ciently strong for core sands. Still, these properties 
depend very much on the nature of the sand and 



ON SAND-CORE MOULDING, ETC. 213 

tlie adhesiveness of the clay, and also what kind 
of cores are to be made from it — large and compli- 
cated cores being made stronger than small ones. 

The various kinds of good moulding-sand em- 
ployed in foundries for casting iron or brass, have 
been found to be of an almost uniform chemical 
composition, varying in grain or the aggregate 
form only. It contains between 93 and 96 parts 
silex, or grains of sand, and from 3 to 6 parts of 
clay, and a little oxide of iron in each 100 parts. 
Moulding-sand which contains lime, magnesia, and 
other oxides of metal, is not applicable, particu- 
larly for the casting of iron or brass. Such sand 
is generally either too weak or too close — will not 
stand or retain its form, or it will cause the metal 
to boil through its closeness. 

In practice, different kinds of castings require 
different kinds of sand for the purpose of mould- 
ing, which will furnish the subject for another 
article. 



214 ON WASHING SWEEPINGS, ETC. 



ON WASHING SWEEPINGS, ASHES, ETC., FROM BRASS 
FOUNDRY FURNACES — GILDERS' AND JEWELLERS' 
WORKSHOPS — AND PLACES WHERE METALLURGIC 
OPERATIONS ARE CARRIED ON. 

The clinkers, ashes, or cinders, which remain in 
furnaces after metallurgic operations have been com- 
pleted, may appear to be among the most useless 
things. Not so, however. If they contain any 
metal, there are men who will ferret it out, by some 
means or other. Not many years since, the ashes 
of the coal or coke used in brass and bronze fur- 
naces, were carried away, after picking, as rubbish. 
But shrewd people have detected a good deal of 
volatilized copper, &c, mixed np therewith, and 
the brass founder can now find a market for his 
ashes as an inferior kind of ore ; or which is still 
more preferable, in case of slackness of work, can 
cleanse and smelt them himself; which every brass 
founder can (or at least, ought to know how to) do. 
It needs hardly to be stated, that all sorts of filings 
and raspings, cuttings and clippings, borings and 
turnings, and odds and ends in the metallic form, 
are all available for re-melting, whatsoever the 
metal may be ; all is grist that comes to this mill. 



ON WASHING SWEEPINGS, ETC. 215 

If the metal be a cheap one, it will not pay to ex- 
tricate a stray per centage from ashes and clinkers ; 
but if it be one of the most costly metals, not only 
are all scraps and ashes and skimmings preserved, 
but particles are sought for in a way that may well 
astonish those to whom the subject is new. 

Take gold as an example. There are dealers who 
sedulously wait upon gilders and jewellers, at inter- 
vals, to buy up every thing (be it what it may) 
which has gold in or upon it. Old and useless gilt 
frames are bought ; they are burnt, and the ashes so 
treated as to yield up all their gold. The fragments 
and dust of gold, which arise during gilding, are 
bought and refined. The leather cushion which 
the gilder uses, is bought, when too old for use, for 
the sake of the gold particles which insinuate them- 
selves into odd nooks and corners. The old leather 
apron of the jeweller is bought. It is a rich prize ; 
for in spite of its dirty look, it possesses very aurif- 
erous attractions. The sweepings of the floor of a 
jeweller's workshop are bought, and there is proba- 
bly no broom, the use of which is stipulated for 
with more strictness, than that with which such a 
floor is swept. In short, there are in this world, 
(and at no time so much as at present) a set of very 
useful people, who may be designated as manufac- 



216 ON WASHING SWEEriNGS, ETC. 

turing scavengers. They clear away refuse, which 
would else encumber the ground, and they put 
nioiu'v into the pockets both of buyers and sellers; 
tliry do effectually create a something, out of a com- 
mercial nothing. It is essentially necessary, how- 
ever, for the brass founder (should he employ a 
smelter of metals to wash his foundry ashes, his 
own man being too busily engaged in the moulding 
shop) to have thorn cleansed and smelted on his own 
premises, as he will effect a considerable saving 
thereby, beside have a very superior metal, th:ui 
i f washed off the premises and returned after smelt- 
ing. The reason is obvious: crucibles generally 
break before the tin, zinc, or lead is added to tho 
copper, which is always melted first; this being the 
case, the smelter has an opportunity (and rarely fails 
to advantage by it) of reducing the alloy with the 
inferior metals, at the cost of the employer. Tho re 
is great room for trickery here, and I have known 
brass founders themselves (and clever ones at that), 
who could not detect the imposition. Every brass 
founder ought to be capable of washing and smelt- 
ing his own refuse and shop dirt. This may be 
done (as before stated) at any period of the year, 
and iind him employment when he might otherwise 
have nothing to do in the moulding shop, as well 



FLUXES. 21 T 

as save his employer from laying out cash for that 
which he has at home, if only gathered together. 



CORNISH REFINING FLUX. 

Deflagrate, and afterward pulverize, two parts 
of nitre, and one part of tartar. The following fluxes 
answer the purpose very well, provided the ores he 
deprived of all their sulphur, or if they contain 
much earthy matter; because in the latter case, 
they unite with them, and convert them into a thin 
glass, but if any quantity of sulphur remain, these 
fluxes unite with it, and form a liver of sulphur, 
which has the power of destroying a portion of all 
the metals ; consequently, the assay must be, under 
such circumstances, very inaccurate. Limestone, 
feldspar, fluor-spar, quartz, sand-slate, and slugs, 
are all used as fluxes. Iron ores, on account of the 
argillaceous earth they contain, require calcareous 
additions ; and the copper ores, rather slugs, or vit- 
rescent stones, than calcareous earth. 



GRUDE, OR WHITE FLUX. 

One part nitre, to two parts tartar, mixed well 

together. 
19 



218 FLUXES AND IMITATION SILVER. 

BLACK FLUX. 

The above flux detonates by means of kin lied 
charcoal, and if the detonation be effected in a mor- 
tar slightly covered, the smoke that urises unites 
with the alkalized nitre and the tartar, and renders 
it Hack. 



CORNISH REDUCING FLUX. 

Mix well together, 10 ounces of tartar, 3 ounces 
and 6 drachms of nitre, and 3 ounces and 1 drachm 
of borax. 



IMITATION SILVER METAL. 

4J pounds tin, } pound bismuth, J pound anti- 
mony, | pound lead. This metal retains its silvery 
brilliancy to the last. 



ON CASE-HARDENING IRON. 

Case-hardening iron is done by reducing the 
prussiate of potash to a paste, in a little water, 
smearing over your article, and heating it in the 
tire to a dull red heat, and then dip in cold water. 



VARNISHES GUM SOLUTIONS-*-BRASS. 219 

VARNISH FOR IRON. 

The best varnish for iron is red lead, laid on 
first with a very thin coat, left to dry, then give 
one or two more coats. 



VARNISH FOR POLISHED IRON. 

Use common gnm copal varnish. You may mix 
a little oil in it. 



TO PRESERVE GUM ARABIC SOLUTIONS. 

A FEW drops of alcohol, or any essential oil, will 
preserve a quart of the mucilage of "gum Arabic 11 
or "gum Tragacanth" from spoiling. A small quan- 
tity of dissolved alum will. preserve flour paste. 



BEST COMPOSITION OF BRASS FOR ROLLING AND 

FORGING. 

Any proportion between the extremes of 50 
parts copper and 50 parts zinc, or 62 copper and 



220 ON THE FLUXING OF METALS. 

SS zinc, will roll and work at the red heat. The 
very best composition, however, is 60 parts copper, 
to 40 parts zinc. 



REMARKS ON THE FLUXING OF METALS. 

Metals arc contained in the ores, in most cases 
as compounds, and if it is the object to separate 
them, we are to put such matter in contact with 
them, as will deprive the metal of its compound. 
If a silicate of iron is melted, we do not precipitate 
iron by adding carbonate of soda, or caustic lime, to 
the fluid mass; this addition merely increases the 
fluidity of the slag, without producing any metal. 
But if we add sodium, the oxide of iron will be de- 
prived of its oxygen, and form metal. Carbon has 
more affinity for oxygen than me(al, in the high heat 
of a melted silicate. If, therefore, we add carbon to 
the melted silicate of iron, some iron is produced. 
In all cases, the metal requires a slimy, glassy sub- 
stance coating, to protect it against the influence of 
oxygen, when exposed in small particles to that 
influence. 

Almost all metals burn more readily than carbon 
— gold, the platina metals, and silver, in some meas- 



TINNINc; COPPER AND BRASS. 221 

ore, excepted. \\\ therefore, we desire to obtain a 

metal, we rau>t produce a *&</, which protects it, 
and at the same time admits of its coagulation. I 
would strongly recommend the founder to use as 
general flux (for copper ibundings, particularly, 
where large masses of copper have to be melted, 
prior to adding his tin and zinc), sal. enixum (the 
refuse from aqua-fortisj, to be obtained at most of the 
chemical works, at a trifling cost. I know of nothing 
to equal it. This, with charcoal, surpasses every 
thing else. 



TINNING CAST COPPER, OR BRASS. 

Cast-iron may be tinned by a solution of tin, 
as muriate of tin, mixed with an equal part of 
sal-ammoniac, if brushed over the metal, will highly 
further the operation of tinning; i. e., make a solu- 
tion tin, by dissolving oxide of tin (tin putty) in 
potash ley — adding to the saturated solution some 
tin-shavings or filings. Make this hot as possible ; 
place in your brass or copper, and they will be 

tinned in a few seconds. 
19* 



*:w> 



TKNAcitv OF METALS. 



The following table of experiments on the teuaoi* 
ties of metals, is given with the results, And the 
Qxporimenters' names 



( '.it copper, 

l lainnw nil OOppOr, 

Sheet ooppcr, 
\\ [re ooppor, 

\\ ire pluhici, 

('list : ll\ or. 

w Ire " 
Oast gold, 
Wire " 

Hlll'll (Mill liuf.ll, 

Pine yellow I'm 

Cusl tin, 
\\ in- tin, 
Cast iron, No. 1, 

Cust Iron, No 2, 

GOBI iron, No 3,* 



in toni, 8240 Ibii 
B-J 
IS 
21 o 

21 <> 

ISO 

17 

\) 

III) 
l£-0 

8-0 

2-0 

8-0 
81 o r < | 
t; in 8 
c to 99 . . 



Bxporioitntoi i 

Sir .1. Ivtnnic 

K [ngaton 

(iuy ton. 



Sir J, Ronnie. 



Hodgkinson 
l rodgk Imon. 
[Iodgkinson 



'v\\c a i>> > \ i- toitd |v «' oo bun >">«' inch iciu&roi 



* The strongest nualit\ o( oast iron, is it Bootoh Iron 
Known us the ''Devon Hoi lUast," No. 8. its tenacity li 
M tons per squa.ro inoh. its resistance to compression li 
6fi do. The experiments of Major Wado,i on the gun iron 
tit West Point foundry, and al Boston, give to us results n» 

high ns LO to L6 tons, tin oii'liout , and On small cast bars as 
high as 1 ', Ions. 

I Strength itnd othor PropertUi of iWctuls (or OftDnon. n<>. Philft* 

dolphUl II. 0i Hiiml. 1868, 



UK AND 7JSC. 223 

ON REDUCING COFPKB WITH WHITE ARSENIC. 

In red copper ritfa wl 

for butl mts, candle 

figures, &';., &c, to give theni the color oi 

whole she ild raght down under a flux of 

common salt The metal is very highly poisonc 
and should not in any case ; . for coo;. 

utensils. Arsenic being more fusible and brittle, 
is much used in shot feci - of 

\\ lbs. arsenic to 500 lbs. of lead for small si 
and 3!' d for large 



Tin A h v.: ■':. 
Tjx and zinc will ■ than copper in 

melting metal:-:. To prevent this as much as 
-ible, a flux of p $ely mixed 

with charcoal, in the pi I i 

hundred pound.-; of metal, should be added im- 
mediately after th melted, to prevent oxi- 
dation, and loss of gth and beauty. The 
quicker tfa \ i under a good flux, 
and cast into work, the mc \ will be the 
crystallization and homogenity. If zinc is to 
added after the crucible is taken from the fire (in 

:st to introduce it in the 

form of yellow bra 



224 ALLOYS AND BRONZES. 



TIN AND IRON. 



Eight ounces of iron to six ounces of tin, make 
a beautiful composition, resembling steel both in 
lustre and hardness. \ less proportion of tin still 
adds to the hardness and brilliancy of iron. 



COPPER, TIN, AND IRON ALLOY. 

Let tin-plate scraps be melted with block-tin 
under a flux of nitre, and poured out, when melted, 
together. The metals would not readily combine 
otherwise. Thus the Spaniards and Chinese cast 
excellent bells, of the following composition : 

Copper .... 74 pounds. 

Tin 25 

Iron 1 



100-0 



CORINTHIAN BRONZE. SYRACUSE BRONZE. 

90-0 Copper. 82-25 Copper. 

7-0 Tin. 17-50 Zinc. 

3-0 Zinc. 25 Tin. 

100-0 100-00 



WHITE LACQUER. 



225 



SHIP-NAILS COMPOSITION, STRONG AND DURABLE. 

10 Pounds copper, 8 lbs. zinc, and 1 lb. iron. 



CHINESE WHITE METALS. 



No. 1. 

Copper, 55-0 

Zinc, 17-0 

Nickel, 23-0 

Iron, 3-0 



98-0 



No. 2. 
50-0 
25-0 
25-0 
No iron. 



No. 3. 
62-0 Copper. 
19-0 Zinc. 
14-0 Nickel. 

2-J Cobalt. 

2-J Iron. 



100-0 



100-0 

No. 4. 
78-0 Copper, 4-0 nickel, 3 + 5 zinc. 

Add one-fourth part of zinc to No. 4 metal for soldering 
the four compositions. 



v*' i 



FEXTON S ANTIFRICTION METAL. 

7 J parts grain tin, 
7J parts purified zinc, 
1 part antimony. 



TO MAKE WHITE LACQUER. 

TAKE spirits of wine (highly rectified) one pint, 
which divide into 4 parts. Then mix one part w : th 



226 WHITE LACQUER. 

half an ounce of "gum mastic," in a phial by 
itself; one part spirits and half an ounce of "gum 
sandarach" in another phial ; one part spirits and 
half an ounce of the whitest parts of "gum Benja- 
min." Then mix and temper to your mind. No 
rule can further instruct you, unless the quality of 
the gums and spirits could be ascertained. It 
would not be amiss to add a very small piece of 
" white rosin," or clear " Venice turpentine," in the 
mastic bottle ; it will assist in giving a gloss. If 
your varnish should prove strong and thick, add 
clear spirits; if too hard, pour from the mastic 
bottle ; if too soft, a little from the sandarach or 
Benjamin. When you have brought it to a proper 
temper and ready for use, warm the plate on a hot 
heater, and with a camel's hair brush dipped in the 
varnish, stroke it quickly over until no shades 
appear. 

The following paper was read by Mr. Sterling, 
before the London Institute of C. E., January 29th, 
1853: 

ON IRON", AND SOME IMPROVEMENTS IN ITS 
MANUFACTURE. 

There is no doubt that many most valuable 
improvements have been introduced (more espe- 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 227 

cially of late years) by ironmasters and others con- 
nected with the iron trade. But these have chiefly 
had reference to the later stages and finishing pro- 
cesses in iron -making, and to the machinery con- 
nected with these processes. Of the chemistry of 
the blast-furnace — of the changes produced by the 
process of refining, and in puddling — we are still 
ignorant. Having devoted a good deal of time to 
this subject, the writer may be allowed to say, that 
the more he has studied it, and the more he has 
seen of iron-making, the more convinced he is of 
our ignorance. And it is to be hoped that some 
steps will be taken to improve our knowledge, 
and render the various processes certain and 
economical. 

The improvements in iron manufacture which 
are touched on in the following remarks, are not 
of the nature of those alluded to above ; they are 
of an inferior class, and should properly be called 
improvements in iron, or in the manufacture of 
certain kinds of iron, for certain purposes. It will 
be unnecessary to enter minutely into the various 
processes for converting the iron ore into cast and 
malleable iron, or to describe at length the various 
materials used. 

The chief varieties of iron ore which are used 



228 IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 

in this country are the clay-band, the black band, 
and the hematite. From the hematite, the purest 
pig-iron and strongest bar-iron are said to be made ; 
and from clay-band a stronger malleable iron is 
generally supposed to be obtained than from the 
black-band : but the various qualities can be altered 
by the judicious ironmaster, and malleable iron of 
as good quality can be produced from black-band 
as from the hematite or clay-band. The writer 
does not here allude to improvement of quality by 
mixing different ores (by which it is well known 
the bad qualities of some descriptions are entirely 
removed), but to the skilful treatment of one or 
more ores of a somewhat similar character. 

The first stage in the manufacture of iron, is the 
conversion of the ore into cast-iron, which is ac- 
complished in various ways. In Great Britain, the 
ore, after being calcined, if necessary, is introduced, 
with layers of coal or coke and a flux (usually a 
carbonate of lime), into a large furnace, and a 
strong blast (either hot or cold) is urged through 
the previously kindled mass, to accelerate the com- 
bustion of the fuel, and the conversion and fusion 
of the metal, which is usually tapped from the fur- 
nace once in the twelve hours, and run into pigs 
or ingots, which go by the name of "hot or cold 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 229 

blast iron/' according to the nature of the blast 
employed. The subdivisions of both these sorts 
of iron are the same, viz : Nos. 1, 2, and 3, when for 
foundry purposes ; and forge, or white iron, when 
intended for being converted into malleable iron. 
These numbers and qualities of iron are supposed 
to differ from each other in the quantity of carbon 
contained in each, although this is doubted by 
many eminent chemists. No. 1 is certainly darker, 
softer, and more carbonaceous-looking than the 
other numbers, and forge or white iron appears to 
contain much less carbon than any iron intended 
for foundry purposes ; but, as we see a similar effect 
produced on foundry iron, by rapid chilling, to that 
produced in forge iron by the supposed abstraction 
of carbon, it will, perhaps, be more readily admit- 
ted that color is not a test (or at least not a certain 
one) of the quantity of carbon which iron contains. 
It may be here remarked, that the Nos. 1, 2, and 
3. give no real idea of the nature of the iron — they 
are relatively comparative, and only indicate the dif- 
ferences between cast-iron of the same district and make. 
Thus, what is called No. 1 in Wales, resembles 
hard No. 2 in Scotland, and corresponds to Stafford- 
shire No. 2 (average) ; Welsh No. 2 is fully as hard as 

Staffordshire No. 3, or Scotch No. 4 (a brand), interme- 
20 



230 IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 

diate between No. 3 and forge iron. As a general 
rule, Nos. 1 and 2 are adapted for small castings, 
Nos. 2 and 3 mixed for medium castings, and No. 3, 
or 3 and 4 in Scotland, or 3 in England, for heavy 
castings ; but the mixtures of Welsh and Scotch, 
or of Staffordshire, Welsh, and Scotch, are found 
to make stronger and better castings than those 
made from one sort of iron. 

This mode of producing strong castings has been 
long practiced, and is in many places convenient ; 
and the increase of strength is no doubt satisfac- 
tory; but there is still a want of uniformity in 
result, and an occasional difficulty in keeping to 
the proportions, and even in obtaining the brands 
specified by the engineer or architect, or chosen by 
the founder on his own experience. 

It seemed to the writer very desirable, therefore, 
to obtain if possible a kind of iron which should 
be either uniform and constant in its strength, or 
at least, not under a certain standard — and, after 
numerous experiments and trials, he attained this 
object by making certain mixtures of cast and 
wrought-iron, which have been called "toughened 
cast-iron." 

Allusion has already been made to the different 
numbers of cast-iron, and to their qualities ; and it 



COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF IRON. 231 



ought further to be stated, that No. 1 is considered 

the weakest, and No. 3 the strongest. To render 

these uniform in strength, and at the same time to 

equalize that of cast-iron from different districts, it is 

only necessary to vary the quantity of wrought-iron 

introduced, by which means all other mixture is 

avoided, and so much greater strength insured, as 

to allow a margin for considerable variation in 

strength, from any accidental defect, as well as for 

a diminution in weight, taking the averages of the 

toughened cast-iron and of the best mixtures : 

Transverse strength of bars 1 inch square, 4 feet 6 inches 
between supports.* 

Cast-iron, average breaking weight, 436 lbs. 

Toughened cast-iron, ditto, 733 " 

Tensile st rength . * 

Cast-iron, average breaking weight, 7*036 tons. 

Toughened cast-iron, ditto, 11*790 " 

Crushing strength. 

Cast-iron, average crushing weight, 38*582 tons. 

Toughened cast-iron, ditto, 59*522 " 

To render the above more intelligible, the pro* 

portions are given below, which have been found to 
bring very soft Scotch (No. 1 hot-blast) and very 



* The averages of the transverse and tensile strength are from tho 
experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson, in the government report and else- 
whore, and other experimenters ■ Mr. Hodgkinson is the sole authority 
for the resistance of crushing force. 



232 COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF IRON". 

hard Welch (No 2 cold-blast) to nearly the same 
strength. 

Scotch, No. 1 hot-blast, breaking, when unmixed, at 430 lbs. 
With a mixture of 33 per cent, of wrought-iron scrap, 

broke at 713 " 

The same Scotch iron as the first, with only 20 per 

cent, of malleable scrap, broke at about 620 " 

Showing a deficiency in the quantity of the scrap. 
Welch, No. 2 cold-blast, breaking, when unmixed, at 440 lbs. 
With a mixture of 10 per cent, of wrought-iron scrap, 

broke at 689 " 



The results obtained by Mr. Hodgkinson are very 
favorable, as shown in the following table, where the 
breaking weights of common cast-iron and tough- 
ened cast-iron are given, from the report of the com- 
missioners appointed to inquire into the strength of 
iron. 

Table of Comparative Strength of Cast-Iron. 



Description of Iron Bars, all 
two inches square. 


Transverse 

Breaking 

Load in 

Centre. 

lbs. 

2,174 
1,207 
1,220 
1,375 


Tensile 
Breaking 
Strength. 


Crushing 
Strength. 


Toughened cast-iron, with 20 
per cent, wrought scrap,.... 


Tons per 
inch. 

11-50 


Tons per 
inch. 

54-64 


5-67 
7-46 


27-00 
( 49-11 
( 30-50 


Blaenavon, No. 2, 


Warrington best gun mixture, 



Comparative trials, on a larger scale, made by 
Mr. Owen (by command of the Admiralty), gave 



ToCGHlNED CAST-IRON. 233 

equally satisfactory results. Tensile strength, ac- 
cording to Mr. Owen, 12*50 tons. 

Since these experiments and trials were made, 
the toughened cast-iron has been successfully used 
in the construction of several public works, Wind- 
sor bridges, Chelsea bridge, Yarmouth bridge, &c, 
&c; and it may be mentioned that, by being allowed 
to reduce the scantling in proportion to the increased 
strength gained by employing the toughened cast- 
iron, the contractors for the heavy castings of the 
Manchester viaduct were enabled profitably to fulfil 
their contract ; whereas, had they used common 
iron, and been confined to the specification, they 
would have been heavy losers. 

For shafting, rolls, pinions, cog-wheels, cast-iron 
railway-carriage wheels, cylinders, and other cast- 
ings where strength and closeness of texture are 
desirable, the toughened cast-iron will be found 
most useful ; also, cast-iron which will not chill in 
its unmixed state, readily chills, with less loss of 
strength than usual, when mixed in proper propor- 
tions with malleable iron. 

To insure that the proper proportion of malleable 

iron is contained in each pig, and also to render the 

mixture more easily conveyed from place to place, 

the writer prefers making the mixture at the blast- 
20* 



234 REFINING IRON. 

furnace; and this is done by distributing the proper 
weight of malleable scrap in the moulds into which 
the melted iron is to be run. It is thus firmly fixed, 
and melts more easily and regularly with the cast- 
iron in the cupola or other furnace, the cast and 
wrought iron heating gradually to the melting point 
of the former, when the wrought iron is easily acted 
upon, and fluxed by the cast-iron. 

The process of converting cast into malleable iron 
is much more varied than that of converting the ore 
into cast-iron. In some districts a great proportion 
of the cast-iron is refined previous to its conversion; 
in others little refined iron is used, and in some 
works cast-iron is at once converted into malleable 
iron ; and this latter process seems to be gaining 
ground. 

Kefining is, perhaps, the least understood, and the 
least capable of being explained, of any process con- 
nected with iron manufacture. The iron is kept in 
a fluid state in contact with carbonaceous matter 
exposed to a blast, and, although it would seem 
that b3 r such means more carbon ought to be com- 
bined with the iron, experience shows that a great 
change is produced in the nature of the metal, and 
that, as far as we know, the quantity of carbon is 
diminished, and the iron rendered more nearly akin 



REPIKIKG and PUDDLING ikon. Ma 

to malleable iron, or at least bo altered at to be 
more <| nick l y converted into it. 

Refining la an expensive procei , great waste of 
materia] being unavoidable, but it i; j . still necessary 
for certain descriptions of iron, and the expense i:i 
partly compensated \>y the greater quickness wit,li 
which the conversion takes place in the puddling 
furnace. 

Puddling is the last and most important process 
in the conversion of cast into malleable iron, it, is 
still an extremely rude one, and its theory is not 
understood) it consists in melting, in a peculiarly 
constructed air furnace, refined or cast iron, or <•«. 
mixture of them, and, as ; j .<><>n as the fusion is com 
plete, in continually stirring the melted metal till 
; picular or granular particles show themselves; 
Previous to tin,-, the melted metal swells up, and 
what is technically called boils; gas is evolved, 
and this appears to be the period at which convex 
sion commences; the solid particles increase in quan- 
tity, and the whole mass acquire a semi-solidity j 
the workman keeps collecting the more solid por- 
tions and forming them into balls, which become 
larger and larger, until the whole of the malleable 
iron is collected, and nothing remains but what is 
called cinder, in a perfectly fluid state, which is 



236 IMPROVED I'KKIWKATION OF IRON. 

afterward removed From Ijhe furnace bv tapping! 
and again used in certain proportions, along with 
ore, in reproducing cast iron. On the removal of 
this cinder from the iron, by puddling, squeezing, 
and rolling, the quality oi' the resulting wrought- 
iron very nuu'h depends* 

To avoid the process oi' refining, to shorten the 
process of puddling, and to improve the quality of 
the resulting wrought -iron, are, undoubtedly, most 
desirable. The writer has endeavored to accom- 
plish this, and has reason to believe that partial 
suocess has attended his efforts. Instead of using 
refined iron, a mixture oi' wrought and east iron (as 
already described) is taken, and, after being melted 
and run into pigs or slabs of the requisite size, it is 
puddled in the usual way, and the process of pud- 
dling is found to be thus so shortened as to allow 
of from one to two heats more being brought out in 
the course of the twelve hours; the yield is greater, 
and the quality of the iron is much improved, as 
regards iibrousness and tensile strength, rendering 
such iron particularly well adapted for cable iron, 
tension bars, shaftings, axles, &o., but not for the 
Wearing surfaces of rails, nor for the tires of wheels. 

Before proceeding to touch on certain other pro- 
oesses, which the writer believes to improve iron 



IMPROVED PREPARATION OF IRON. 237 

for special purposes, it may be well to point to some 
alloys of cast-iron ; as the making these led him to 
make the addition of the same and other metals to 
wrought-iron. 

The first is an alloy of iron and tin, which is ex- 
tremely hard, sonorous, and capable of receiving a 
very high polish ; the addition of manganese, and 
a very small per centage of zinc, gives somewhat 
•greater tenacity. Bells made of these alloys have a 
pure and clear tone. Cast-iron will take up from 
20 to 25 per cent, of tin. 

Cast-iron alloyed with zinc becomes closer in its 
texture, and, as far as the writer's experiments have 
yet gone, stronger, and not less malleable. Alloys 
of bismuth, antimony, copper, and silver, possess 
some scientific interest, but it would be out of place 
to touch on them now. 

Having observed the hardening effect which tin 
produces upon cast-iron, the writer tried a similar 
mixture in the puddling-furnace, and found a cor- 
responding result, with this essential difference — 
that whereas cast-iron will take up about a fifth of 
its weight, wrought-iron is rendered too hard for 
subsequent working by any quantity exceeding one 
per cent.; and taking the various descriptions of 
iron (Staffordshire, Scotch, and Welsh), one half pei 



938 IMPROVED PREPARATION OF IKON". 

oeni of tin produoes a description of iron crystalline^ 
dose in texture, and harder than common wrought? 

iron. 

This quality oi' iron appeared to be suitable tor 
the wearing-surfaces oi' rails and tires oi' wheels, 
and subsequent trials which have been made have 
fully confirmed this opinion, Lamination is pre- 
vented, and the rail, when properly made, wears 
smoothly ami evenly. As in all iron, and particu- 
larly iii rails, muoh depends on manufacture; but 
points and crossings made of this hardened iron. 
and rails upon sharp inclines, where the wear pre- 
viously had boon very rapid, have boon found to 
last more than double the time of any rails previous- 
ly tried, and, as they are yet not worn out, it is at 
present impossible to say how muoh longer they 
will last. The writer does not believe their increased 
Juration to arise solely from the greater hardness, 
but more From the peouliar crystalline texture and 
fine grain of the iron resisting the lamination, which 
groat spood and heavy engines bo rapidly produoe. 
The sections of the rails show the proportion which 
it is considered best that the orystalline should boar 
to the fibrous iron, or to whatever other iron the 
rail may be composed oi'. 

The addition oi' Bine, its OXldea and other ores 



IMPROVED PREPARATION OF IRON. 239 

produces the vary opposite effect to tin and the other 
metals above named. Iron of what is called cold- 
short quality is rendered, by this means, fibrous, 
tough, and strong; red-short iron is also improved 
in quality by the same means, but it is found that 
a larger addition of zinc, or its ores or oxides is re- 
quired to effect an improvement in red-short than 
in cold-short iron. The quantity necessary to im- 
prove cold-short iron varies much in different 
districts, and each peculiar iron requires to bo 
separately considered ; it is also necessary to know 
the per centage of zinc in the ore, if ore be employed, 
and to ascertain that such- ore does not contain 
foreign matters, which might counteract the effect 
of the zinc. The addition of these metals to tho 
iron is best made when the iron in the puddling- 
furnace is beginning to boil. 

The writer was much gratified to observe in the 
American department of the Great Exhibition, a 

confirmation of his experiments on this subject; 

■ 
iron, naturally cold-short and red-short, being ren- 
dered frao from each of these qualities by the addi- 
tion of an ore of zinc. Samples in all stages of 
progress were exhibited. 



240 



ALLOTS OF IRON. 



Table of Comparative Strength of Wrought-iron. 



Description of Iron. 


Teusile 

breakiug 

strain. 


Inflection 
with strain 
Of 9% cwt. 


Permanent 

set. in 
lengths of 

vet. 

Inches. 

102 


Final 
stretch, in 
length of 

2 feet 


Hardeu^d wrought-iron, \ 

with ~ 3 per eeut tin... j 

Toughened wrought-irou.. 


Tons p'r in. 
2-2 91 

•:: si 

24 33 

2447 

83.33 


Inches. 
142 


Inches. 


S C. Cr><wn a v era ire result 

Hartley's general aver- ^ 

age of bar-irou ^ 


2 02 


1'60 


3X 









Had the limits of a mere sketch like this per- 
mitted, the writer would have entered on the con- 
sideration of the relative qualities of cold and hot- 
blast iron, and of the effects produced by the use of 
cinder ; also, on some combinations of iron with the 
earthy bases, and on the effects of various salts and 
fluxes in the blast and other furnaces. Several other 
alloys of iron possess considerable interest, and, in 
conclusion, allusion may be made to a remarkable 
property which iron possesses of closing the grain 
of other metals and alloys to which it is added in 
minute quantity, 

Mr. Stirling exhibited a number of specimens of 
the toughened wrought-iron in bars, and the har- 
dened wrought-iron, as applied to the surface of 
rails, showing their fractures, and specimens of the 
toughened cast-iron, showing the mode of mixing 
the wrought-iron scrap with the pig metal; also 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 241 

specimens of an alloy of zinc, copper, and tin, and 
another of the same composition, with an addition 
of 1 J per cent, of iron, showing the great closeness 
and fineness of grain that were produced by this 
small admixture of iron. It was explained that it 
was advisable to alloy the iron with the zinc before 
mixing with the copper, otherwise, there would be 
imperfection and unsoundness in the metal, the iron 
appearing in the form of what are technically called 
" tears." 

The Chairman said he considered it a very im- 
portant subject, and thought the paper showed 
valuable results of extensive practical trials com- 
bined with scientific inquiry. He asked at what 
period the tin or zinc was added to the wrought- 
iron. 

Mr. Sterling replied, that it was put into the 
puddling-furnace when the extreme of the boiling 
was just pased, or passing, and conversion just com- 
mencing, and the formation of spicula beginning. 
A more fluid iron required the metal to be put in 
at a later period, and iron that came to mature 
sooner required the metal put in earlier. It was 
difficult to give a definite rule ; it could only be 
judged of by particular experience. 

Mr. Duclos thought the presence of zinc in the 
21 



242 IMPROVEMENTS IN IKON MANUFACTURE. 

iron was doubtful ; from its volatility, the greater 
proportion would probably be dissipated in the fur- 
nace, lie considered it more probable that the 
change in the iron was caused by the physical 
quality of the iron undergoing some alteration in 
consequence of the presence of zinc. 

Mr. Stirling said he did not consider the mixture 
of zinc with the iron to be in all cases an alloy, as 
the proportion was occasionally only J per cent., 
and he felt uncertain about its mode of action; the 
quantity of zinc required varied very much: it had 
to be determined by experiment with the different 
ores and furnaces. 

Mr. Duclos observed that in some iron works he 
had been acquainted with in Belgium, he had never 
found any trace of zinc in the iron made from ore 
containing zinc, but metallic zinc was found to ac- 
cumulate in the top of the furnace. Many years 
since a series of experiments had been made by M. 
Carsen on various mixtures of iron with zinc and 
other metals, but they had not led to any practical 
application. There was no question that sufficient 
attention had not been paid to the properties of the 
alloys that can be made with iron, and he was glad 
to see the steps taken by Mr. Sterling ; he did not 
quite agree as to the want of knowledge of the iron 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 243 

manufacture ; he thought there was a great deal of 
knowledge on the subject, but he would wish the 
principles carried out further. 

Mr. Sterling remarked that, in the case men- 
tioned, in Belgium, two processes — smelting and 
refining — intervened, by which most, if not all the 
zinc might be volatilized. There was no doubt that 
the practical making of iron was well understood, 
but not the theory and principles, otherwise the 
process might be further simplified, and, as the re- 
sult, iron would most probably be produced com- 
plete at one process, instead of two or more. He 
thought that further improvements would be more 
studied and accomplished when iron and coal were 
dearer. 

Mr. M'Connell said there was great room for im- 
provement in railway tires and rails. If the tire 
now lasted 70,000 miles on the driving-wheel of the 
engine, it was considered very good work. The 
expense of replacing tires, and the failure, was a 
very serious item ; and if, by Mr. Stirling's process 
the iron could be made to last longer, it would be a 
great source of economy and convenience. 

Mr. Beasley inquired why the wrought-iron scrap 
was put into the pig mould, in making the tough- 
ened east-iron ? 



244 IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 

Mr. Stirling replied, that one object was to insure 
a definite proportion for each charge; also, the 
wrought iron melted more easily in the furnace, 
when mixed in that maimer with the cast-iron, 
which seemed to act as a flux, the whole getting 
heated together ; the cast-iron dropping, eats away 
the wrought-iron. If thrown separately into the 
cupola, part of the cast-iron would melt down first, 
and the two would not get uniformly mixed ; the 
wrought-iron was liable to get oxidized, and wasted. 

Mr. Beasley observed, that he was aware if the 
wrought-iron was thrown into the puddling-furnace 
with the pig, it would burn away, and not improve 
the quality ; but if it was thrown into the fire a 
little time before the puddler commenced balling 
his iron, it would very much improve the quality. 

Mr. Sterling said that it was an old practice to 
add wrought-iron in the puddling-furnace, in order 
to get a quicker yield ; but it would not melt 
thoroughly in that case and make a uniform mix- 
ture. It should be first remelted in the cupola 
from the mixed pig, to make a uniform mixture, 
and then remelted, and worked in the puddling- 
furnace. 

Mr. Beasley remarked, that he had melted 
wrought-iron in the cupola, and then worked it in 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 245 

the puddling-furnace, and had found the result to 
be better than from the ordinary pig-iron alone ; 
but it was not a sufficient advantage to make it 
worth the extra expense ; he hal obtained a greater 
yield. 

Mr. Stirling observed, there was a process for 
melting wrought-iron, which was then converted 
back, by decarbonizing, to a state approaching to 
steel. It was intended to be used for small articles, 
such as snuffers, scissors, &c, instead of forging 
them. 

Mr. Adams inquired about the application of 
the hardened iron to tires. The best scrap tires 
were found the worst to wear ; they laminated 
more, and consequently he did not use them. 
Those he used, were made, he believed, of two 
blooms, the lower one of scrap or other tough iron, 
and the upper one from a puddled ball not piled. 
The wearing surface was consequently crystalline 
iron, hard, not laminated, and was more suitable to 
resist the rolling and crushing action that the wear- 
ing surface of the tire was subject to. 

Mr. Stirling replied that he had seen a similar 

process extensively carried on. The lower part of 

the tire was made of No. 3 iron, and the wearing 

surface of No. 2 iron, consisting of two puddled 
21* 



246 IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 

balls hammered thoroughly, then reheated and 
passed through rolls, and lastly welded to the 
No. 3 iron for the lower part. For such purposes 
as the wearing surfaces of wheel-tires and rails, 
scrap-iron was certainly the worst, from the ine- 
quality of the pieces united by welding, necessa- 
rily numerous and irregular. When the wearing 
and rolling action came into effect, unequal wear 
and lamination of the surface must be the result. 

Mr. T. Fairbairn said the results of the trials he 
had made of the toughened cast-iron, were a near 
approximation to Mr. Hodgkinson's experiments. 
But he did not think it would be prudent, or alto- 
gether safe, for an architect or engineer to reduce 
the section of a girder to the extent which the rela- 
tive transverse strength given in the tables would 
appear to warrant. He would rather retain the 
large section, and avail himself of the additional 
security which the use of the toughened iron un- 
doubtedly gave. 

Mr. Stirling observed, that to obtain the full 
increase of strength, would require different trials 
with different iron, in order to ascertain the best 
proportion of scrap. But, in the right proportions, 
from the general results of observations, he believed 
it might be confidently stated that one fifth of the 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 247 

weight might be taken from ordinary sections of 
girders by using the toughened cast-iron, leaving a 
greater strength of girder. However, he would 
much prefer seeing all the strength of the ordinary 
section left, for extra safety. The strengths given 
in the tables in the paper, were chiefly taken from 
Mr. Hodgkinson, and were the average results of 
his experiments, showing an increase of transverse 
strength of 78 per cent. 

Mr. E. Williams asked whether, in practice, any 
difficulty was found to arise in uniting the two 
qualities of hard and soft wrought-iron ? 

Mr. Stirling replied, that no difficulty was found 
in the manufacture, and they were found to be 
soundly welded together. 

Mr. E. Williams observed, that as the hard iron, 
which melted at a lower temperature than the soft 
iron, was necessarily the topmost in the pile, when 
placed in the furnace to be welded, either that 
would be over-heated, at the expense of its qualitv, 
or the inner piles would be under-heated, and en- 
danger the soundness of the bloom. With regard 
to the lamination of tires, this was not so mucn 
owing to the fact of their being made of piled iron, 
as to the mode of piling ; and by piling the bars 
edgewise, instead of flatwise, there was little, if any, 



248 IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 

liability to laminate. Puddled iron could he made 
hard or soft, at pleasure, according to the manage- 
ment of the process, without the introduction of 
any alloy into the puddling-furnace. 

Mr. Stirling replied, that the hard iron came 
quite as soon to a welding heat as the other iron, 
and a most perfect weld resulted. 

Mr. M'Connell remarked, that in the manufacture 
of steel tires, the steel did not lengthen so much as 
the iron in rolling, and it made a difficulty in roll- 
ing the tires to make them sound throughout ; and 
he inquired whether any difficulty of that kind was 
found with the hardened iron for the wearing sur- 
face of tires and wheels. 

Mr. Stirling replied, that in rails no separation 
between the materials had been found. He had not 
yet had experience in tires. On the Edinburgh and 
Glasgow railway, on the steep incline at Cowlairs, 
Mr. Adie had had rails hardened on this plan laid 
down for some years, and had found them to last 
better than steel-covered rails, which had been also 
tried, and usually wore out in a considerably shorter 
time. The hardened rails were still going on well, 
and an additional portion of that line was now being 
laid with them. In consequence of the first rails 
manufactured being made too hard, they showed 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 249 

distinctly a tendency to separate — and the failure 
was valuable as experience. Also, they were made 
more liable to separate by the hardened piece laid on 
being round-topped in the pile. Fifty or sixty rails, 
made at the very first works where the plan had 
been tried, had been broken at different times for 
examination, and were found quite sound. 

Mr. E. A. Cowper said he had used wrought-iron 
scrap, mixed with cast-iron in the ladle, the melt 
being rather hotter than usual. It closed the grain 
of the iron very much, and was found advantageous 
in casting hydraulic presses, or other castings where 
a very close grain was required. He had put in as 
much as 15 per cent, of scrap. 

Mr. Stirling observed that he had never found 
that more than about 5 per cent, could be combined 
in that manner, and then the mixture must be more 
or less imperfect, and the metal would be partially 
chilled. 

Mr. Cowper said he had not found any objection 
from the metal being cooled. It was taken pretty 
hot, and clean iron-turnings were put into the ladle 
and well stirred up, which secured complete mix- 
ture and fusion. 

Mr. Slaughter inquired what was the relative 
cost of toughened cast-iron. 



250 IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 

Mr. Stirling replied, that in a girder, if the section 
were reduced one fifth, the cost would be cheaper ; 
if the price of cast-iron were very low, the tough- 
ened iron would then be proportionately dearer. 

Mr. Slaughter said he had tried the toughened 
iron for a number of locomotive-cylinders, at the 
recommendation of Mr. Gooch, on the Great West- 
ern railway, and found it made very fine, perfect, 
and sound eastings, better than he had ever made 
before. He intended to continue the use of it, and 
considered it an excellent material for cylinder 
castings, and preferable for any purpose for which 
the strongest and best iron was required. He did 
not find the iron dearer, but, on the contrary, less 
expensive than the iron he had previously used for 
the purpose. 

Mr. Stirling explained that the toughened iron 
might be made from a cheaper iron, such as the 
Scotch hot-blast, which, at £o per ton, would be 
about £3 10s. for the cost of the toughened iron, 
which would then surpass in strength a dearer iron, 
such as Blaenavon, at £5 or £5 10s. per ton. So 
that, although the increased expense of the process 
was 10s. or 12s. per ton, the final cost was less, be- 
cause a cheaper description of iron could be used, 



IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON MANUFACTURE. 251 

and a greater strength was at the same time ob 
tained, as shown in the table of experiments. 

Mr. Slaughter said he had found that the tough- 
ened iron was less expensive. That which he used 
was made from Dundy van or Calder iron, at £3 or 
£3 10s. per ton, and he found it better, when tough- 
ened, than the cold-blast iron which he had pre- 
viously used at £5 or £5 10s. per ton. 

The chairman proposed a vote of thanks to 
Mr. Stirling for his valuable and interesting paper, 
which was passed. He thought that important 
practical results were likely to follow from such an 
able investigation, and they were much indebted to 
Mr. Stirling for bringing it before them; and he 
trusted that he would continue the course, and 
favor the institution with the further results. 



252 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 
BY C. A. LEE, C. E. 

All solid bodies are proved to be possessed of 
certain general properties, among the most im- 
portant of which is the capability of offering 
resistance to forces tending to change the relative 
position of their particles. It is this that it is 
proposed to discuss. 

There are different hypotheses as to the ultimate 
arrangement of the particles of bodies, but for 
estimating their strength it is customary to sup- 
pose them to be made up of fibres running parallel 
to the length of the body — which fibres are more 
or less elastic, and capable of being extended or 
compressed within a certain limit, which is called 
the "limit of elasticity." The amount of compres- 
sion or extension is directly proportional to the 
force applied, and to the length of the piece, and 
inversely proportional to the transverse section. It 
must be understood, however, that these changes 
of form are very minute, depending on the nature 
of the material in question. Moreover, the same 
force will produce equal extensions and compres- 
sions in the. same piece. Suppose we take a bar 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 253 

of iron and bend it — it is evident that the fibres 
on the convex side are lengthened, while those on 
the concave side are shortened. It is the natural 
elasticity of these fibres that causes the bar to 
spring back when the pressure is removed. If the 
bar is bent so much, and consequently the fibres 
extended and compressed so much as to exceed the 
limit of elasticity, the bar will not return fully to 
its original form, but will take what is called a 
permanent " set." When a piece is submitted to a 
strain sufficient to give it a permanent set, it will 
from that time, if the force is continued, undergo a 
gradual yielding, until finally it gives way. This 
gradual yielding sometimes takes months and years 
to be sensible ; but experiments have proved that 
it does take place. After the natural elasticity is 
once destroyed, the piece, if the charge is con- 
tinued, keeps growing weaker. It is thus seen 
that in practice it is absolutely out of the question 
to submit materials to a greater strain than that 
corresponding to the limit of elasticity, and it should 
never ordinarily exceed from one half to three 
quarters of this limit. There will be given, farther 
on, practical rules for guidance in this respect. 

There are several species of strains to which 
materials may be subjected — compression, exten- 
22 



254 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

sion torsion, transversal strain, and cletrusion, or 
where the force acts at right-angles to the fibres. 

When a solid is subjected to a strain sufficient 
to cause rupture, either by crushing or extension, 
it is proved by experiment that the force necessary 
to produce this effect is directly proportional to 
the transverse section of the body — that is, to the 
area of the section. There will be found, in the 
Table, the ultimate resistance of different kinds of 
materials to extension and compression ; but it 
must be remembered that these experiments were 
made on fair, sound specimens, and under favora- 
ble circumstances, and that the pieces subjected to 
compression were but once and a half their base 
in height. When the specimens exceeded six times 
their base, they gave way by bending. 

Explanation of the Table, No. 1. — The first column 
gives the different materials. The second gives the 
weight of a cubic inch or foot of each, in pounds. 
The third gives the weight necessary to rupture, 
by extension, a piece one inch square. The fourth 
gives the same with regard to compression. The 
fifth and sixth give the limits which should not be 
exceeded, in practical applications, in pounds, per 
square men of section. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



255 



MATERIAL. 



Ash (English) 

Beech (do.) 

Box 

Elm 

Fir (New England) 

Fir (Riga) 

Larcb 

Locust 

Oak (English) 

Oak (Canadian) 

Oak (Dantzic) 

Pine (pitch) 

Pine (red) 

Teak 

Iron, 

Bar 1 inch square CWelch).. 

Two inch round bar 

Russian 1 inch round bar... 

Swedish 1 inch square bar.. 

American bar iron 

English cable iron 

" hammer hardened.. 

fron Wire. 

id inch diam. Philipsburg 

0.19 " " " 

0.156 " " «f 

0.1 «' " English.. 

Boiler Iron (American). 

Piled iron 

Hammered plate 

Puddled iron 

Cast iron 

Wrought Copper, in sheets.. 

Cast Copper 

Copper wire... 

Cast Tin 

Cast Zinc 



o 



* 



47.5 
43.8 
62.5 
33.8 
34.4 
47.0 
33.8 
59.5 
50.0 
54.5 
47.5 
41.2 
41.3 
47.0 



Weight 
of a cu- 
bic inch, 

in lbs 

0.281 



0.26 

0.32 

0.317 

0.32 

0.263 

0.248 



Ultimate resistance to 
extension per square 
inch of section. 


C V 

ssr 

1 u 

|s.g 

gg--3 

u o 
V m M 
eS L. o 

— O S3 


9 S 

•e a, 

= a O 
£3 'S 
XS «> u 

CJ T3 ** 

■~ a) X 
.e « m 

J»r 

a " 8 

5*~ 


17000 


9000 


1000 


11000 


12000 


« 


20000 


12000 


« 


5800 


10000 


H 


12000 




f< 


12600 




<< 


7000 


4000 


<« 


20500 




(< 


12000 


8000 


« 


12000 


5000 


(1 


14500 


7000 


(( 


10500 


6700 


« 


10000 


7500 


« 


15000 


12000 


({ 


58000 


70000 


10000 


5900(» 


<• 


«< 


53000 


it 


ft 


58000 


(t 


« 


48000 


a 


«« 


53000 


(( 


« 


63000 


a 


«( 


75000 




12500 


66000 




11000 


SOOOO 




13300 


72000 




12000 


56000 


70000 


9300 


55000 


u 


9100 


51000 


( 80000 


8500 


18000 


\ to 
(.150000 


3000 


30000 


100000 


5000 


17000 


117000 


3000 


60000 




10000 


4200 


1000 


700 


8400 




1400 



•s-c a 



1000 



15000 



11700 




170 



256 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



[table continued.] 



MATERIAL. 



Rolled Zinc 

Cast Lead , 

Rolled Lead 

Yellow Brass 

Gun metal , 

Granite 

Sandstone , 

Limestone (Magnesian) 

Oolites 

Limestone (Silicious) 

Hydraulic lime mortar 

Hydraulic cement 

Ordinary lime mortar (old) 

Best quality Brick , 

Inferior Brick , 



. 






— , 










o o 


o o 


o 






« 2 


a «J 


a 

«! 

-.2 


flg 1 

a 

.2 o> o 
m a.-- 

u a v 

2 a = 


8 3 

B? 

03 j~ 

So 

». o S 

V o 

Oka 

S3 fc. 


■a o. 

o .g o 
•° *3 

^11 


2°-g 
§31 


to 




^ e a 

5S.2 


•~ " oj 

2-°'- 


8 o o 


0.25 


7000 




1170 




0.41 


1700 
1800 


483 


300 
300 


80 


0.282 


16000 
32000 


103000 


2700 
5300 


17000 


0.097 




10000 




1000 


0.0S8 


800 


5000 


80 


500 


0.115 




5000 
2000 




500 
200 


0.114 




5000 




500 


0.055 


140 


500 


15 


50 


0.056 


234 


700 


25 


70 


0.058 


70 


500 


6 


50 


0.069 


280 


2000 


30 


200 


0.062 


100 


800 


10 


80 



The preceding table has been prepared from the 
highest authorities — Morin, Poncelet, Claudel, Bar- 
low, Hodgkinson, Franklin Institute, and others, 
and the utmost reliance may be placed upon it. I 4 . 
has been prepared especially for the practical use 
of American mechanics. The numbers in the fifth 
and sixth columns are those recommended by the 
most eminent engineers and practical men both in 
this country and Europe. 

With regard to the absolute ultimate strength 
of materials, it is proper to state that they vary 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 257 

very much for different specimens of the same 
material. This applies more especially to wood, 
but also in some degree to all substances. It de- 
pends much on the state of the specimen. For 
instance, in the following table will be found the 
result of experiments made on short cylinders of 
timber, with flat ends, subjected to a compressive 
force. The cylinders were one inch in diameter 
and two inches in height. The results in the first 
column were obtained from timber moderately dry; 
those in the second column were obtained in like 
manner from similar specimens which were turned 
and kept in a warm place two months longer. A 
comparison of the two columns will show the great 
importance of having timber thoroughly seasoned 
in order to obtain its full strength. 

Strength per square 

inch, in pounds. 

DESCRIPTION OF WOOD. , , 

Green. Dry. 

Ash 8683 . 9363 

Beech 7700 . 19300 

Birch 3200 . 11600 

Oak (Quebec) 4230 . 6000 

Oak (English) 6480 . 10000 

Larch 3200 . 5560 

Willow 2898 . 6128 

"With regard to the safe amount of strain it is 

22* 



258 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

proper to charge materials with in constructions, 
the engineer will be guided in each particular case 
by his judgment. It is impossible to give rules for 
every case. If, for instance, a piece of timber is 
to occupy a position where the strain upon it is 
steady, and it is exposed to no abrasion or decay, 
supposing it to be a fair sound specimen, it might 
be submitted safely to a strain as high as one sixth 
or one fifth of its ultimate strength. But, ordi- 
narily, this would be too high. The French meca- 
niciens, Poncelet, Morin, Claudel, and others of the 
highest authority, have agreed upon certain limits 
to be used in practice for all kinds of materials 
and which will be given below. This limit for 
wood is one tenth the ultimate strength. This is 
the same ratio recommended by Haupt in his work 
on Bridges, and which he found to be perfectly 
successful in practice, as combining a judicious 
degree of strength with the least quantity of ma- 
terial. 

As the mean ultimate strength of wood may bo 
rated at ten thousand pounds per square inch of 
section, both for compression and extension, we 
have for our practical limit, not to be exceeded in 
ordinary cases of construction, one thousand pounds 
per square inch. Where timber is exposed to 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 259 

other than the legitimate strains due to its position 
in the structure to which it belongs, and which we 
will show how to calculate farther on, the engineer 
must of course use his judgment, unless these out- 
side forces are such as to be calculated. The limits 
spoken of above, are, for wood, stone, and mortars, 
one tenth their ultimate resistance both for exten- 
sion and compression, and one sixth for metals. 
As M. Poncelet has remarked, it would be more 
proper to determine these limits from the limits of 
elasticity of the several bodies, but experiments on 
this point have been made in but few instances. 



ON THE STRENGTH OF IRON. — CAST-IRON. 

This material, which has come to be used so ex- 
tensively in the arts and in constructions, and 
whose uses are daily extending, has been made the 
subject of a great number of experiments. The 
most recent and reliable are those of Mr. E. Hodg- 
kinson, the English experimenter. Those especially 
made by him on the strength of columns, both solid 
and hollow, and the most suitable forms for cast- 
iron beams to sustain a transverse strain, hav<3 sup- 
plied the engineer and architect with the most 
21 



260 STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 

valuable guide in using and adapting this metal to 
the various purposes of construction. 

Resistance to Extension. — Experiments have been 
made on this point by Mr. Eennie and Captain 
Brown, of England, and under the direction of the 
Franklin Institute in this country, and also by Mr. 
Hodgkinson of England. The first named gentle- 
man obtained for the ultimate tensile strength of 
cast-iron, from 14,000 to 18,000 pounds per square 
inch of cross section. The results obtained by Mr. 
Hodgkinson, also on English iron, both hot and cold- 
blast, was from 12,000 to 19,000 per square inch. 

The experiments by the Franklin Institute on 
American cast-iron give for the mean tensile 
strength, 20,834 pounds per square inch. This 
material, however, on account of its brittleness, and 
comparatively low power of resistance to a strain 
of extension, is seldom ever submitted to it. It is 
much used in the shape of cast-iron beams, to resist 
a transverse strain, but this has been shown to be 
nothing more than a strain of compression on one 
part, and of extension on another part of the same 
piece. In large works, it would be much better to 
use a combination of cast and wrought-iron for re- 
sisting a transverse strain, the cast for compression 
and the wrought for extension. 



STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 261 

Care must be taken, however, that the different 
degrees of expansion of these two materials by heat 
produce no injurious effects. The limit of elasticity 
as assigned by Claudel, is JLtiks, and the force neces- 

° J ' 1200 ' 

sary to produce it 16,100 pounds per square inch. 
Some few remarks on the characteristics of cast- 
iron may not be out of place here. (They are 
mostly from the pen of Professor Mahan.) Cast- 
iron is divided into two distinct varieties, the white 
cast-iron and gray cast-iron. There are of course 
intermediate varieties, which partake more or less 
of the properties of these two, as they approach in 
appearance nearer the one or the other. 

Gray cast-iron when of good quality is slightly 
malleable in a cold state, and will yield readily to 
the action of the file, when the hard outside scale 
caused by the chill in casting is removed. It is 
also sometimes termed soft gray cast-iron ; it is 
softer and tougher than the white iron. On strik- 
ing a sharp corner with the point of a hammer, an 
indentation will be produced, when in the other 
variety a piece would fly out. When broken, the 
surface of the fracture presents a granular structure, 
the color is gray, and the lustre is what is termed 
metallic, resembling small brilliant particles of lead 
strewed over the surface. 



2C2 STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 

White cast-iron is very hard and brittle; when 
recently broken, the surface of the fracture presents 
a distinctly marked crystalline structure. The color 
is white, and lustre vitreous or glassy. 

The following description, from Mr. Mallet's Ke- 
port to the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, comprises the different varieties : 

"Silvery. — Least fusible, thickens rapidly, when 
fluid, by a spontaneous puddling; crystals vesicular, 
often crystalline ; incapable of being cut by chisel 
or file; ultimate cohesion a maximum; elastic range 
a minimum. 

"Micaceous. — Very soft; a greasy feel ; peculiar 
micaceous appearance, generally owing to excess 
of manganese ; soils the fingers strongly ; crystals 
large ; runs very fluid ; contraction large. 

"Mottled. — Tough and hard; filed or cut with diffi- 
culty ; crystals large and small mixed ; sometimes 
runs thick; contraction in cooling a maximum. 

"Bright Gray. — Toughness and hardness most 
suitable for working ; ultimate cohesion and elastic 
range generally are balanced most advantageously ; 
crystals uniform, very minute. 

"Dull Gray. — Less tough than the preceding; 
other characters alike; contraction in cooling a 
minimum 



STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 263 

"Dark Gray. — Most fusible ; remains long fluid ; 
exudes graphite in cooling ; soils the fingers ; crys 
tals large and lamellar ; ultimate cohesion a mini- 
mum ; and elastic range a maximum. 

"The gray iron is most suitable where strength is 
required; and the white where hardness is the 
principal requisite." 

The color and lustre presented by the surface of 
a recent fracture are the best indications of the 
quality of iron. 

A uniform middling dark gray color and high 
metallic lustre are indications of the best and 
strongest. With the same color, but less lustre, 
the iron will be found to be softer and weaker, and 
to crumble more readily. Iron without lustre, of 
a dark and mottled color, is the softest and weakest 
of the gray varieties. 

" Iron of a light gray color, and high metallic 
lustre, is usually very hard an(i tenacious. As the 
color approaches to white, and the metallic lustre 
changes to vitreous, hardness and brittleness become 
more marked, until the extremes of a dull or gray- 
ish white color, and a very high vitreous lustre, are 
attained, which are the indications of the hardest 
and most brittle of the white variety. 

" The strength of cast-iron varies with its density, 



264 STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 

and this element depends upon the temperature of 
the metal when drawn from the furnace, the rate 
of cooling, the head of metal under which the cast- 
ing is made, and the bulk of the casting. 

"The density of iron cast in vertical moulds 
increases according to Mallet's experiments, very 
rapidly from the top downward, to a depth of about 
four feet below the top ; from this point to the bot- 
tom, the rate of increase is very nearly uniform. 

" All other circumstances the same, the density 
decreases with the bulk of the casting ; hence large, 
are proportionally weaker than small castings. 
From all these causes by which the strength of 
iron may be influenced, it is very difficult to judge 
of the quality of a casting by its external characters ; 
in general, however, if the exterior presents a uni- 
form appearance devoid of marked inequalities of 
surface, it will be an indication of uniform strength." 

There has been considerable discussion with re- 
gard to the relative merits of hot-blast and cold- 
blast iron. Messrs. Fairbairn and Hodgkinson have 
investigated the matter, and their conclusions are 
expressed in the following paragraph: "The ulti 
matum of our inquiries made in this way stands in 
the ratio of strength, 1000 for the cold-blast to 
1024.8 for the hot-blast. The relative powers to 



DURABILITY OF CAST-IRON. 265 

sustain impact are likewise in favor of the hot-blast, 
being in the ratio of 1000 to 1126.3." 

The durability of cast-iron under exposure de- 
pends on different circumstances, the bulk of the 
casting, its homogeneity and density, &c. Mr. Mallet 
has made researches on this subject, and the follow- 
ing are the conclusions he arrived at : 

" That the decay of iron when exposed to the 
action of water, is principally due to Yoltaic agen- 
cy, especially in tidal rivers, where there are strata 
of different densities, a Yoltaic pile being thus 
formed of one solid body, and two fluid ones, 
making the corrosion much more rapid than where 
the water is homogeneous. Pure sea-water has 
much less action on iron than the water of harbors 
and docks, owing to the hydrosulphuric acid con- 
tained in the latter, and which comes from the mud 
at the bottom. In sea- water (pure) the rate of cor- 
rosion of pieces one inch thick, is four tenths of an 
inch for cast-iron, and six tenths for wrought-iron 
per century. In fresh water the corrosive action is 
much less than under any other circumstances of 
immersion, the coat of oxide formed on the outside 
not being dissolved and washed away as in sea- 
water, but remaining as a kind of protection. In 

hot sea-water, the corrosion is most rapid of any 
23 



266 DURABILITY OF CAST-IRON. 

other circumstances. Iron, chill- cast, corrodes more 
rapidly than when cast in green sand, by reason of 
the want of homogeneity of the metal, thus forming 
Yoltaic couples of different densities. When soft 
and hard cast-iron are brought together under water, 
the soft is corroded much more rapidly than when 
by itself, while the hard suffers much less; castings 
made in dry sand are more durable in water than 
those made in green sand. From one eighth to one 
fourth of an inch on the outside of castings, is 
termed the hard crust. When this is removed, the 
iron corrodes much more rapidly. The chief point 
in making castings to be exposed to this agent, is 
to have them as homogeneous as possible, and of as 
great density." 

Mr. Mallet concludes with the following very ju- 
dicious remarks : " The engineer of observant habit 
will soon have perceived, that in exposed works of 
iron, equality of section or scantling, in all parts 
sustaining equal strain, is far from insuring equal 
passive power of permanent resistance, unless, in 
addition to a general allowance for loss of substance 
by corrosion, this latter element be so provided for, 
that it shall be equally balanced over the whole 
structure ; or, if not, shall be compelled to con- 
fine itself to portions of the general structure, 



SILVERING BRASS. 26T 

which may lose substance without impairing its 
stability." 



COMPOSITION FOR SILVERING BRASS. 

Take silver, or gold lace, half an ounce; add 
thereto one ounce of double refined aqua fortis ; 
put them in an earthen pot, and place them over a 
gentle fire till all be dissolved, which will happen 
in about five minutes ; then take it off and mix it 
in a pint of clear water, after which, pour it into 
another clean vessel to free it from grit or sediment 
and then add a spoonful of salt, and the green water 
will immediately let go the silver particles, which 
will form themselves into a white curd. Then pour 
off the water and throw it away, for it is of no fur- 
ther use. The white curd must then be mixed with 
two ounces of salt of tartar, half an ounce of whiting, 
and a large spoonful of salt, more or less, according 
as you find it for strength. Mix it well up together, 
and it is ready for use. 



2G8 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

A Paper read by Mr. A. L. Holley, before the Polytechnic 
Association of the American Institute, New York, Octo- 
ber 12th, 1865. 

Although the general composition and nature 
of steel are well understood by the members of the 
Polytechnic Association, it may not be inappropri- 
ate to refer briefly to these subjects, as preliminary 
to a consideration of the Bessemer process and it3 
results. 

It is well known that cast-iron is, substantially, 
iron with five per cent, of carbon, and one or two 
per cent, of silex, and some other impurities. 
Steel is iron with one to one tenth per cent, of car- 
bon and a trace of silicium, and traces of some other 
substances. Wrought-iron is substantially pure 
iron — iron from which all but a trace of carbon has 
been eliminated. These are the three commercial 
forms of iron. Steel is subdivided, first, according 
to its quality — that is to say, substantially accord- 
ing* to the high or low degree of its carbonization : 
second, according to the method of its manufacture. 

First, as to carbonization. High steel, or hard 
steel, is that which contains a large amount of car- 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 269 

bon, and a low specific gravity. Its distinguishing 
properties are extreme ultimate tenacity, hardness, 
and capability of extension without permanent 
change of figure ; but its extensibility beyond the 
elastic limit is small, and it is therefore brittle 
under concuss'on. It will harden when heated and 
immersed in water ; it is with difficulty welded, 
because it deteriorates under high heat, and because 
its welding heat is very near its melting point, and 
it is melted at a low temperature, as compared 
with wrought-iron, on account of its excess of 
carbon. 

Low steel — also called mild steel, soft steel, 
homogeneous metal, and homogeneous iron — con- 
tains less carbon, and has a higher specific gravity. 
It can be welded without difficulty, although it 
deteriorates by overheating, and it more nearly 
resembles wrought - iron in all its properties, 
although it has much greater hardness and ulti- 
mate tenacity, and a somewhat lower range of 
ductility, depending on its proportion of carbon. 
It has less extensibility within the elastic limit 
than high steel, but greater extensibility beyond 
it — that is to say, greater ductility. 

The grand advantage of low steel over wrought- 
iron, for nearly all purposes, is that it can be made 
23* 



2*70 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

liquid at a practicable heat, and run into solid 
homogeneous masses, however large — thus avoid- 
ing the great defect of wrought- iron, want of 
soundness, due chiefly to welds. It is also harder, 
more elastic, and more tenacious. 

Second, steel is named according to the processes 
by which it is manufactured. 

What is called "puddled steel," or, by some of 
its makers, u semi-steel," ought not to be called steel 
at all. The idea of steel involves the idea of cast- 
ing from a liquid state, and of consequent homo- 
genity. Puddled steel, so called, is high wrought- 
iron. It is wrought-iron puddled in the ordinary 
way, except that the process is stopped before the 
product is quite decarbonized. And the product 
possesses not only the ordinary defects of wrought- 
iron in the usual degree, but the defect of a want 
of uniformity in a much higher degree. It is not 
easy to guess at a minute chemical ouantity through 
the flame of a puddling furnace. Puddled steel 
however, is stronger than wrought-iron. 

Crucible steel or pot steel is made from cast-iron 
by making cast-iron into wrought-iron, i. e. : entirely 
decarbonizing it by the puddling or charcoal refin- 
ing process, and then melting the wrought-iron with 
carbon in crucibles, to recarbonize it to the proper 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 271 

degree. Or, wrought-iron bars are covered with 
charcoal and baked for some days in a converting 
oven. By this process the bars are somewhat car- 
bonized, but still possess the structural defects of 
wrought-iron. The product called blister steel, is 
used in this state for the cheaper kind of springs, 
etc.; but its chief value is for re-melting in the cru- 
cible, with additional carbon, to form cast-steel. 
Crucible steel is also made from scrap Bessemer 
steel — the spillings from ladles, etc., and ingot and 
bar ends ; also from cast-iron decarbonized to the 
required degree in the Bessemer converting vessel 
— and then poured into water. The product is fine 
shot of perfectly uniform steel, which are re-melted 
with or without additional carbon. The Bessemer 
process, in addition to making ingots, thus furnishes, 
directly and indirectly, the material for a large 
quantity of the best tool steel as well as low cruci- 
ble steel now produced in Sheffield. 

A little manganese, or some substitute for that 
metal, is always put into the crucible with the car- 
bon. Chemists do not agree as to the precise chem- 
ical office of the manganese or its substitutes; but 
the result is to increase the ductility of the steel, in 
both the heated and the cold state. 

Bessemer steel is just as much cast-steel, both 



272 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

structurally and chemically, as steel made in cruci- 
bles ; because it is poured from a melted state into 
masses of any size, and because it is definitely and 
uniformly carbonized. 

By the Bessemer process steel is made in two 
ways from cast-iron. 1st, as in Sweden, by blow- 
ing air through melted cast-iron, the oxygen of the 
air uniting with the carbon in the cast-iron, and so 
removing all but the amount required in steel, say 
one half to one tenth of one per cent. The oxygen 
also removes all but a trace of the silex, and the 
other impurities are burned out. By this process 
a certain definite number of cubic feet of air are 
blown through a certain weight of iron, and the 
blowing is stopped before the iron is quite decar- 
bonized. 2d, by the Bessemer process it is more- 
usual and more convenient to blow the air through 
the melted cast-iron until all the carbon and silex 
are removed, after which a small amount of melted 
crude cast-iron is mixed with the decarbonized 
metal, thus giving it the proper quantity of carbon, 
silex, and manganese ; or, instead of cast-iron, arti- 
ficial mixtures, containing carbon, silex, and man- 
ganese, or some substitute for manganese, are poured 
into the decarbonized iron. 

The steel thus produced is cast into ingots, which 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 273 

are then ready for the hammer or the rolls. The 
apparatus employed is, first, a large melting furnace 
to melt the cast-iron to be converted ; second, a 
converting vessel, into which the melted iron is 
run, and where the air is blown into it to decarbon- 
ize it; third, a small melting furnace, where the 
small quantity of cast-iron or other material for re- 
carbonizing is melted ; fourth, a ladle, ladle crane, 
etc , into which the steel is poured from the con- 
verting vessel, and from which it is let out into 
the ingot moulds. 

The melting furnaces used in England and on 
the continent are reverberatory furnaces ; that is, 
furnaces in which the flame of the fuel is thrown 
down upon the iron, instead of the iron being mixed 
up with the coal. Thus the impurities of the coal 
do not mix with the iron. The furnaces are simi- 
lar to common puddling furnaces. They were at 
first used in this country, but the cupola has now 
been substituted. 

The converting vessel is a cylindrical vessel of 
plate-iron with rounded or dome ends. It is (for 
making two tons of steel at a charge) about five feet 
in diameter and ten feet high. It is mounted on 
trunnions, so that it may be turned either end up- 
ward. On one end is an inclined mouth or spout, 



274 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

and on the other a tuyere box, to which air is ad- 
mitted from the blowing engine by means of a hol- 
low trunnion and pipes connected with it. The 
converter is lined with a refractory material about 
a foot thick — any silicious stone ground fine and 
rammed in; and the air is carried through this 
lining, from the tuyere box, by means of six fire- 
clay tuyeres, each tuyere having a dozen holes 
about a quarter of an inch in diameter. To the 
other trunnion is attached gearing and a crank to 
revolve the converting vessel. 

The ladle is a plate-iron vessel some three feet 
high and three feet in diameter, lined say two inches 
thick with refractory material, chiefly moulding- 
sand. In the bottom of it is a hole in which is set 
a fire-clay nozzle. A fire-clay stopper, lifted and 
lowered by a hand-lever fastened to the outside of 
the ladle, fits into this nozzle, and thus forms a 
valve by which the hole in the bottom of the ladle 
is opened and closed. 

The ladle is mounted on a crane, which allows 
it to move up and down, and to swing round in a 
fixed circle — that is, to swing under the converter, 
to catch the steel, and then to be hoisted and moved 
over the ingot moulds in succession. The process 
is as follows : Two tons of pig-iron are melted in 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 275 

the large furnace — time, one hour and a half. 
Meanwhile the converter has a fire made in it, and 
two or three pounds per square inch pressure of 
blast let in, to heat the lining red hot, and the 
ladle is turned bottom upwards over a little fur- 
nace to heat. By means of another crane the 
ingot moulds are also ranged in the pit in a half- 
circle, so that the ladle can swing over them. 
When the iron in the large furnace is nearly 
melted, a small quantity of pig-iron or other recar- 
bonizer is set to melting in the small furnace. 
When the iron in the large furnace is melted, the 
converting vessel is turned on its axis, spout down- 
wards, and the coal emptied out. It is then turned 
into a horizontal position, and an iron trough, lined 
with loam, suspended on rollers, is swung one end 
into the mouth of the vessel, and the other under 
a spout leading to the tap-hole of the furnace. 
The furnace is then tapped, and the iron runs 
through the channel thus formed into the convert- 
ing vessel. The air-blast is then let on, and the 
vessel turned spout upwards, the tuyeres or air 
passages thus being underneath the melted cast- 
iron. The air is blown up through the cast-iron 
at about fifteen pounds pressure per square inch. 
Combustion, first of oxygen and silex, and then of 



276 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

oxygen and carbon, and a violent boiling, at once 
ensue. In from six to ten minutes, the flame blow- 
ing out of the mouth of the converter into the 
chimney changes from a dull red, full of sparks, to 
an intense white, with splashes of cinder. After 
five to ten minutes more the flame gets thinner, 
shows purple streaks, and finally drops away, not 
entirely, but very obviously to the practiced eye. 
At this instant the metal is entirely decarbonized. 
More air blown in would begin to burn the iron 
itself. At this instant, then, which is so clearly 
defined that a dozen men tolerably familiar with 
the process would cry " stop" at the same second, 
the converter is turned down into a horizontal 
position, and the air-blast shut off. The recar- 
bonizer from the little furnace is then run into the 
converter by the same means, thus restoring to the 
metal the exact quantity of carbon, silicium and 
manganese, or its substitute, required, the liquid 
cast-iron being only the vehicle for conveying these 
ingredients. The. chemical mixture of the recar- 
bonizer with the decarbonized iron is complete and 
almost instantaneous. It causes a momentary boil- 
ing of the mass in the converter. 

The ladle is then swung under the mouth of the 
converter, and the latter being lowered, the steel 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 277 

pours out into the ladle. While the ladle is being 
raised over the ingot moulds the mouth of the con- 
verter is still further lowered to let the slag run 
out. Some of the slag runs out with the steel and 
forms a coating over it in the ladle, thus keeping 
it hot. The slag consists of such impurities of the 
iron as have not passed off in a gaseous form. 

The ladle is then moved over the tops of the 
moulds successively, and the steel let into them by 
the stopper and lever above mentioned. When a 
mould is full, a plate of thin sheet-iron is laid on 
top of the steel, then a shovelful of sand, then a 
thick plate, which is wedged down. In ten to sixty 
minutes, depending upon their weight, the ingots, 
still red hot, are removed from the moulds, and may 
be hammered or rolled into rails, plate, shafting, or 
other forms, without reheating, except to warm the 
exterior, chilled by the moulds. Usually, the ingots 
are allowed to cool before hammering. This cool- 
ing changes their crystalization and improves their 
ductility. The ingot moulds are usually of cast-iron, 
from two to three inches thick. Some of them are 
solid, and w r idest at the bottom, so that the ingot 
will slip out there. Others are made in two halves, 
held together by hoops, and are taken apart to let 

the ingot out. 
24 



278 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

Ingots are cast in the form most convenient for 
hammering and rolling into the desired shapes, and 
of all weights, from one hundred to five thousand 
pounds. The loss of iron in the whole process is 
from twelve to eighteen per cent. ***** 

The Bessemer process is, to the casual observer, 
almost ridiculously simple. It is, in fact, very 
simple; and it is conducted without any risk or 
difficulty, always providing that the irons used are 
of good quality, as most American irons are. In 
fact, it is almost impossible to make bad steel, or 
steel that is not uniform, out of good uniform irons, 
if ordinary attention is paid to the manufacture 
and the machinery, because the quality of the steel 
is not in a great degree dependent on the skill or 
judgment of the operator. The ingredients are 
mixed by weight. Bessemer steel cannot be 
economically made, however, without first-rate 
blowing machinery, good and convenient appa- 
ratus, and constant vigilance on the part of the 
two or three skilled operatives who have charge 
of the tuyeres and linings. 

The great commercial advantage of the Bessemer 
process over all other steel processes, and, consider- 
ing the quality of the product, over puddling, is 
its cheapness. The only fuel used is that for melt- 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 279 

ing the pigs in a cupola, fur heating the converter 
at the commencement of a series of charges, and 
the small amount for heating ladles, etc. The fire 
materials cost something more than in iron making, 
the pig-iron required is more expensive than the 
average irons used in puddling. Yery little skilled 
labor is required. Some steel products are pro- 
duced at about the cost of wrought-iron products 
of the same shape and weight. 

The grand advantage of Bessemer steel over 
wrought-iron, especially in large masses, is its per- 
fect homogeneity — the absence of welds, and conse- 
quent imperfections, such as the laminations of 
rails, blisters in boiler-plates, and cold shuts in 
heavy forgings. Its tenacity is double that of 
wrought-iron, considering the above mentioned and 
unavoidable defects of wrought-iron in welded 
masses. In the bar, it is one half greater than that 
of wrought-iron, or from ninety thousand to one 
hundred and twenty thousand pounds per square 
inch, according to the degree of carbonization re- 
quired for different purposes. The nature of the 
Bessemer process renders the product more uniform 
than wrought-iron can be, in all its qualities. The 
stiffness of this steel, proportionate to its tenacity, 
adapts it to girder and ship building, and peculiarly 



280 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

fits it to resist compressive as well as tensile strains 
as in piston-rods. While the elasticity, and hence 
the safe working load, of the lowest steel is much 
greater than that of wrought-iron, its ductility is 
equal to that of the best wrought-iron. Two-inch 
bars may be bent double, when cold, under the 
steam-hammer. This property insures its safety in 
the form of axles and tires. The hardness of the 
material, as well as its homogeneity, increases its 
durability in the form of rails, guns, and parts sub- 
jected to abrasion. It is peculiarly adapted to 
plates requiring intricate flanging, and subjected to 
the immediate contact of fire. For a given strength 
it may be thinner than wrought-iron. It does not 
blister, and the carbon in it protects it against cor- 
rosion. 

This process of making steel was brought out 
by Mr. Bessemer in 1856. English and European 
manufacturers began to adopt in 1859 and I860, 
and at the present writing not less than one hun- 
dred thousand tons of Bessemer steel are produced 
per year. 

The idea of blowing air into melted cast-iron is 
at least three hundred years old. The fusing fur- 
nace for partially decarbonizing cast-iron, prepara* 
tory to puddling, has been worked on this principle 



STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 281 

for more than one hundred years. Since Mr. Bes- 
eemer's patents were issued, and since his practice 
began, claims have been made by two or three 
other persons for making steel by the Bessemer 
process ; but not a pound of steel or malleable iron 
was ever made by either of these processes ; and i* 
is physically impossible to make steel or malleable 
iron by either of them. 

Mr. Bessemer spent a large fortune in his effort 
to carry the process away beyond the highest stage 
of decarbonization that could be reached by the 
fusing or any of its modifications ; and I can say, 
from personal experience, that in his process the 
use of air as a mechanical agent is quite as indis- 
pensable as the use of air as a chemical decarboni- 
zer. The attempt to completely decarbonize cast- 
iron without the use of the apparatus for which 
Mr. Bessemer has not only one but many distinct 
patents in England and in the United States, will 
result in the production of nothing but scrap, une- 
qually decarbonized, and incapable of being either 
cast, balled, or utilized in any way. 

Mr. Bessemer was also the first to suggest and to 
patent the process of recarbonization, both by run- 
ning cast-iron into a decarbonized iron, and by 

other means, and the process of alloying manganese 
24* 



282 STEEL BY THE BESSEMER PROCESS. 

in connection with the pneumatic process. Ther*. 
are now seventeen extensive Bessemer steel works 
in Great Britain. At the works of the Barrow 
Steel Company, one thousand two hundred tons per 
week of finished steel can be turned out, and when 
their new converting house, containing twelve more 
five- ton converters, is completed, these magnificent 
works will be capable of producing weekly from 
two thousand to two thousand four hundred tons 
of cast-steel. There are at present erected and in 
course of erection, in England, no less than sixty 
converting vessels, each capable of producing from 
three to ten tons at a single charge. When in 
regular operation, these vessels are capable of pro- 
ducing fully six thousand tons of steel weekly, or 
equal to fifteen times the entire production of cast- 
steel in Great Britain before the introduction of the 
Bessemer process. The average selling price of 
this steel is at least £20 per ton below the average 
price at which cast-steel was sold at the period 
mentioned. With the present means of production, 
therefore, a saving of no less than £6,240,000 per 
annum may be effected in Great Britain alone, even 
in this infant state of the Bessemer steel manu 
fact ure. 



RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 283 



TO SILVER BRASS. 

Having well cleared the biass from all scratches 
(otherwise it will spoil its appearance), rub it over 
with a piece of an old beaver hat and rotten-stone 
to clear it from all greasiness ; then rub it with salt 
and water with your hand ; then take a little of the 
before-mentioned composition on your finger, and 
rub it over where the salt has touched, and it will 
adhere to the brass, and appear as well as silver. 
After which, wash and steep it in plenty of clear 
cold water, to kill the aqua fortis which remained 
in the composition ; and when dried with a clean 
hot rag, it is then ready to be varnished with the 
white lacquer. 



RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 

The best authority on this point is Mr. Hodgkm- 
soq, whose experiments were very full and varied. 
The trials were mostly on small columns with cir- 
cular bases. The resistance was found constant for 
a height less than once and a half the diameter of 
the base, from this to a height equal to three times 
the base ; the resistance was less than before, but 



284 RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 

still remained constant ; and for any height greater 
than this, the resistance decreased with the height. 
When the piece was higher than three times the 
base, the rupture generally took place by bending. 
The pieces submitted to experiment generally 
yielded by an oblique fracture, the upper part 
sliding off on the lower. The angle made by the 
plane of the fracture, with the axis of the solid, was 
constant, and equal to about 55°. 

The strength was found to be in direct propor- 
tion to the area of the cross section. The measure, 
therefore, of the resistance offered by a solid to rup- 
ture, either by compression or extension, is that 
force which will rupture a sectional area of the 
solid represented by unity. The following are the 
results obtained by Mr. Hodgkinson. The mean 
of the experiments on hot-blast iron gave, for crush- 
ing weight, 121,-685 ibs. per square inch; cold-blast 
iron gave a mean of 125,400 lbs. per square inch. 
These were on short prisms, whose cross section 
was a circle. When the section was a square, or 
other regular figure, the resistance was decreased 
to 100,600 lbs. per square inch. 



RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 



285 



Table from Mr. Hodgkinson's Experiments. 







i 


DESCRIPTION OF METAL. 


Compressive Force 
per square inch, 


Tensile Force per 
square inch, in 




in pounds. 


pounds. 


Devon iron, No. 3, hot-blast 


145,435 


21,907 


Buffery iron, No. 1, hot-blast 


86,397 


13,434 


Do. " No. 1, cold-blast 


93,385 


17,466 


Do. " No. 2, hot-blast 


82,734 


16,676 


Do. " " cold-blast 


81,770 


18,855 


Carron iron, " hot-blast 


108,540 


13,505 


Do. " <« cold-blast 


106,375 


16.683 


Do. " No. 3, hot-blast 


133,440 


17,755 


Do. " " cold-blast 


115,442 


14,200 



Resistance to a Transverse strain. — The resistance 
of cast-iron to a transverse strain, is a subject of 
the highest importance to the engineer and archi- 
tect. Indeed, to prove this, it is only necessary to 
point to the daily extending uses of this material 
in almost every possible shape, and it is well known 
that cast-iron is seldom, if ever, submitted to any 
other than a transverse strain, as in cast-iron beams, 
girders, &o., and a strain of compression, as in 
columns, which will be investigated farther on. 

The theory of the transverse strain has been fully 
investigated; and great numbers of experiments 
have also been made on this point, so that among 
mechanics the matter is considered as sufficiently 
settled. 

The remarks below apply to other materials, as 
well as to cast-iron. 



286 



RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 



Let A B be a body to which a force, P, is ap- 
plied, in a direction perpendicular to the direction 
of the fibres. Supposing the force to be sufficient 
to bend the body, as in the figure, the fibres a b, on 




y 



the upper side, will be extended, while those, c d, 
on the lower side, will suffer a strain of compres- 
sion. This can be made evident ; for, by increasing 
the weight P, until a fracture takes place, the rup- 
ture will be found to commence on the convex side, 
thereby proving that the fibres on that side havo 
been most extended ; and if some of the fibres on 
the convex side be separated by cutting them 
through transversely, it will be found that a 
smaller force than P will suffice to produce the 
rupture. 

If, on the contrary, the fibres on the concave 
side, c d, be cut through transversely to a depth, m n, 



RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 287 

corresponding to about half the depth of the piece, 
and a slip of hard material like a sheet of iron bo 
interposed, so as to just fill the place cut out, it 
will be found, on subjecting it again to the force P 
that the thin plate will be strongly retained by a 
pressure tending to compress it, while the strength 
of the solid will not be altered — the rupture com- 
mencing under the same strain, and in the same 
place as before. As we proceed from the convex 
toward the concave side of the solid, the extension 
of the fibres will gradually become less, until at a 
point at or near the centre of the piece, the length 
of the fibres will be found to undergo no variation. 
Beyond this distance, the fibres will be found to be 
more and more compressed, until we arrive at the 
concave side, where the compression will be at its 
maximum. The position of the fibres, whose form 
is not altered by the flexure, and represented by 
the line e f, is called the neutral axis. Its 
position varies for different substances, but for 
practical purposes may be considered to coincide 
with the centre of gravity of a transverse section 
of the solid. 

The fibres, whose lengths are not altered, are 
contained before the flexture in a plane perpen- 
dicular to the direction of the pressure, and which, 



288 RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 

of course, contains the neutral axis, as one of its 
elements. After the flexure, these fibres form a 
cylindrical surface, whose elements are parallel to 
the same plane. 

Moreover, the fibres, at equal distances above and 
below this plane, undergo equal extensions and 
compressions. 

In order to investigate the circumstances of a 
body submitted to a transverse strain, it is neces- 
sary to obtain the moment of the acting force, with 
reference to the points of support, and establish an 
equation between this and what is called the "mo- 
ment of elasticity," when the deflection of the body 
is in question, and the moment of rupture, when 
rupture is the point. The investigation is conducted 
by the aid of the higher analysis, and would be 
of no use to the practical engineer. It is therefore 
omitted — all the results, however, being given in a 
form to be easily understood. These remarks apply 
to other materials, wood, &c, as well as to cast- 
iron. 

The experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson on cast- 
iron beams, the strength of best form for, &c, 
are the latest and most reliable authority on this 
point. 

The following are the results of one of his ex- 



RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 



289 



periments on bars of cold-blast iron five feet long ; 
distance between supports, four feet six inches ; the 
weight being applied at the middle of the bar : 



Rectangular Bar 


Rectangular Bar 


Rectangular Bar 


1 inch deep, 1 inch broad. 


3 inches deep, 1 inch broad. 


j 6 inches deep, 1 inch broad. 


Weight 


Defl'ct'n 




Weight 


Defl'ct'n 




Weight i Defl'ct'n 




in 


in 


Set in 


in 


in 


Set in 


in 


in 


Set in 


pounds. 


inches. 


inches. 


pounds. 

1082 


inches. 


inches. 


pounds. 


inches. 


inches. 


16 


.033 




.091 


.003 


4936 


.110 


.013 


30 


.062 




1343 


.111 


.006 


5867 


.130 


.017 


56 


.120 


.002 


1605 


.138 


.008 


6798 


.153 


.020 


112 


.240 


.007 


1836 


.164 


.010 


7730 


.179 


.025 


168 


.370 


.014 


2126 


.190 


•012 


8662 


.195 


.030 


224 


.510 


.028 


2388 


.220 


.015 


9593 


.219 


.034 


280 


.649 


.041 


2649 


.250 


.019 


10525 


.250 


.042 


336 


.798 


.061 


2910 


.281 


.026 


10588 


Broke. 




392 


.953 


.084 


3172 


.31 


.031 








448 


1.120 


.120 


3433 


.345 


.037 








504 


1.310 


.170 


3694 


.378 


.046 








514 






3825 


Broke. 










518 


Broke. 
















Ultimate deflection, 1 


Ultimate deflection, 


Ultimate deflection, 


1.36. 

■ 


.395. 


0.252. 



STATIC PRESSURE OF WATER UNDER DIFFERENT 

HEADS. 

A convenient and easily remembered, method 

for approximating to the pressure of water, is to 

allow one half pound pressure per square inch for 

each foot of head. The pressure at any point being 

directly as the perpendicular depth below the level 
25 



290 PRESSURE OF WATER. 

of the surface, this simple rule affords a ready 
method of ascertaining its amount with an accu- 
racy sufficiently close for ordinary purposes. That 
it is not strictly correct, however, may be readily 
perceived ; and having occasion, recently, to calcu- 
late with tolerable exactness the pressure corres- 
ponding to several heads between ten and one 
hundred feet, I present the following Table for the 
convenience of others, having enlarged it by the 
addition of several numbers outside of the limits 
named above. The temperature of the water is 
assumed at 59° Fahrenheit ; the density, from the 
presence of salts and other foreign matters, is as- 
sumed at 1.000,149, distilled water being 1.000,000. 
This density, corresponding with the investigations 
of Briagarand on the water of the Garronne, and 
with that of Brisson on the Seine, I have assumed 
as the density of ordinary fresh water. An allow- 
ance should perhaps be made for the increase of 
density due to the compression under great heads, 
but too slight to be of any practical importance. 

Kecent experiments on this point indicate a com- 
pression about totoUu °f i ts bulk, under a pres- 
sure of one, atmosphere, or 33.90 feet head. 

A pipe of cast-iron 15 inches diameter and f of 
an inch thick, will sustain a head of water of six 



PRESSURE OF WATER. 



291 



hundred feet. One of oak, two inelies thick, and 
of the same diameter, will sustain a head of one 
hundred and eighty feet. 



Head 


Pressure, in pounds, 


] in feet. 


per square inch. 




— 5 1 


.43 




—10 2 


.88 




—15 3 


1.30 




—20 4 


1.73 




—25 5 


2.16 




—30 10 


4.33 




—35 15 


6.50 




—40 20 


8.66 




— 45 25 


10.83 




—50 30 


12. 




—55 35 


15.16 




—60 40 


17.33 




—65 45 


19.50 


50 


21.66 


55 


23.83 


60 


25.90 


65 


28.06 


70 


30.55 


75 


32.72 


80 


34.66 


85 


36.83 


90 


38.90 


95 


41.07 


100 


43-33 


125 


5417 


150 


65. 


175 


76 05 


200 


86 67 


300 


130.01 


400 


17334 


500 


216.68 


600 


259.02 


700 


305.55 


800 


346.69 


900 


389-03 


1000 


433-37 


1500 


650-05 


2000 


866.74 


3000 


1300.11 


4000 


1733.4S 


5000 


2166.88 


6000 


2600.22 


7000 


3033.59 


8000 


3466.96 


9000 


3900.33 


100U0 


4333.70 



By paying strict attention to the above Table, 



292 PRESSURE OF WATER. 

much loss and inconvenience will be saved, particu- 
larly to plumbers, &c., in laying down pipes of the 
required strength according to the pressure, saving 
bursting, taking up, and laying down others, to 
say nothing of the annoyance of tearing up pave- 
ments, highways, &c, through the want of a proper 
knowledge of the static pressure in all cases per 
square inch. 



DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING AND FITTING BAB- 
BITT'S ANTI-ATTRITION METAL. 

Melt 4 pounds of copper, add by degrees 12 
pounds best quality of Banca tin, 8 pounds regulua 
of antimony, and 12 pounds more of tin while the 
composition is in a melted state. 

After the copper is melted and 4 or 5 pounds 
of tin have been added, the heat should be reduced 
to a dull red, to prevent oxidation ; then add the 
remainder of the metal as above. In melting the 
composition, it is better to keep a small quantity 
of powdered charcoal on the surface of the metal. 
The above composition is called Hardening. For 
lining the boxes, take one pound of this Hardening 
and melt it with two pounds of Banca tin, which 
produces the lining metal for use. Thus, the pro 



babbitt's ANTI-ATTRITION METAL. 293 

portions for Lining Metal are 4 pounds of copper, 
8 pounds of regulus of antimony, and 96 pounds 
of Banca tin. 

The article to be lined, having been cast with 
a recess for the lining, is to be nicely fitted to a 
former, which is made the same shape as the bear- 
ing. Drill a hole in the article for the reception of 
the metal, say one half or three fourths of an inch, 
according to the size of it. Coat over the part not 
to be tinned with a clay wash : wet the part to be 
tinned with alcohol, and sprinkle on it powdered 
sal ammoniac ; heat it till a fume arises from the 
sal ammoniac, and then immerse it in melted Banca 
tin, care being taken not to heat it so that it will 
oxidize. 

After the article is tinned, should it have a dark 
color, sprinkle a little sal ammoniac on it, which 
will make it of a bright silver color, and cool it 
gradually in water. Then take the former, to which 
the article has been fitted, and coat it over with a 
thin clay wash, and warm it so that it will be per- 
fectly dry; heat the article until the tin begins to 
melt, lay it on the former, and pour in the metal, 
which should not be so hot as to oxidize through — 
the drilled hole giving it a head, so that as it shrinks 
25* 



294 BABBITT S ANTI-ATTRITION METAL. 

it will fill up. After it is sufficiently cool remove 
the former. 

P. S. — A shorter method may be adopted whei\ 
the work is light enough to handle quickly, viz.: — 
When the article is prepared for tinning, it may be 
immersed in the lining metal instead of the tin, 
brushed lightly in order to remove the sal ammo- 
niac, from the surface, placed immediately on the 
former, and lined at the same heating. 



SOLDERING FLUID FOR SOFT SOLDER. 

To two fluid ounces of muriatic acid add small 
pieces of zinc until bubbles cease to rise ; add half 
a teaspoon ful of sal ammoniac, and two fluid ounces 
of water. 

P. S. — By the application of this, iron or steel 
may be soldered without being previously tinned. 



ALLOY OF THE STANDARD MEASURE USED BY 
GOVERNMENT. 

576 Parts of copper, 
59 " tin, 

48 brass (yellow, 22 cop. to 1 of zinc). 



TUNTENAG AND EXPANSION METAL. 295 
TUTENAG. 

8 Parts of copper, 5 parts of zinc, and 3 parts 
of nickel. 



EXPANSION METAL. 



9 Parts of lead, 2 parts of antimony, and 1 part 
Dismuth. 



INDEX. 



-+—- 



FAOE 

hit, Hrcape .if. 210 

Alkalies, fixed 30 

Alkaline earths 30 

Alloy, government 294 

Alloy of iron and tin 237 

Alloy of iron and zinc 237 

Alloy, Rose's 80 

Alloys 87, 100, 107-112, 129,135-141, 

147, 148 

Alloys, density of. 89 

Alloys, formation of. 34 

Alloys, metallic 32 

Alloys of bismuth 97 

Alloys of copper and zinc 57 

Alloys of copper, zinc, tin, and 

lead 59 

Alloys with iron 237, 241, 242 

Alloys, properties of. 90 

Amalgam 94 

Amalgam of zinc and mercury 33 

Amalgams 87 

Antidote to arsenic 191 

Anti-friction metal, Teuton's 225 

Anti-friction metals 105 

Antimony 53 

Antimony ami copper 109 

Antimony and tin, copper and bis- 
muth 109 

Argol 102 

Arsenic, antidote to 101 

Arsenic, experiments with 146 

Arsenic, properties 14.". 

Arsenic, use of 142, 143 

Artificial metal 61 

Ashes from brass foundry furnaces, 
washing 214 

Babbitt's anti-attrition metal 292 

Balls, cast metal, weight 119 

Bedil 47 

Bell founding 67 

Bell-metal... :;2. 55 

Hells 100 

Bessemer steel 20s 



PAOfc 

Bismuth 97 

Bismuth and lead 110 

Black, Brunswick 201 

Black flux 101, 143, 218 

Black lead bronze 184 

Black wash for cores 212 

Blanched copper 73 

Blister steel 271 

Block tin 48 

Blowpipe 130 

Borax 167 

Boron 167 

Brass 32,74 

Brass, best composition of, for roll- 
ing and forging 219 

Brass, Corinthian and Syracuse 73 

Brass, conducting heat 207 

Brass founding 43 

Brass guns 68 

Brass mirrors : 72 

Brass moulding 62 

Brass solder 127 

Brass, to bronze 113 

Brass, to silver 283 

Brass, yellow 92 

Brazing solder 61 

Bread paste, to cast in 84 

Bright gray iron 26 

Brilliants of Fahlun 110 

Brimstone 170 

Britannia metal 137 

British weapons and tools in 

bronze 73 

Bronze 55, 73 

Bronze, black lead 184 

Bronze, brass to 113 

Bronze, carbonate of iron 185 

Bronze, Corinthian 224 

Bronze, liquid 117 

Bronze, Syracuse 224 

Bronzing 182 

Brown gunbarrels 179 

Brunswick black 201 

Burning and soldering metals 130 

(297) 



298 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Cannon, bronze for 55 

Carbonate of iron bronze 185 

Case-hardening iron 218 

Cast figures in imitation of ivory... 85 

Cast in bread paste 84 

Cast in glue 83 

Cast in sulphur 82 

Cast in wax 81 

Cast-iron 228,268 

Cast-iron pipes, table of weight of.. 120 

Cast-iron, strength of. 232, 259 

Cast metal cylinders, table of 

weight 121 

Casting, figure 70 

Casting in plaster 75 

Cement for joints of cast-iron 188 

Cement to resist fire and water 187 

Cements 195,198 

Chemical and physical properties 
of atomic alloys of copper and 

zinc, and of copper and tin 40 

Chemical bronze 182 

Chemistry, results of. 19 

Chinese packfong 108 

Chinese white metals 225 

Chlorine 173 

Cleansing gold 128 

Cleansing silver 128 

Cohesion and strength of met- 
als 122,124 

Cohesiveness in cores 209 

Cold and hot blast iron 264 

Columbia metal 137 

Composition for ornaments 86 

Composition for silvering brass 267 

Composition of brass for rolling and 

forging 219 

Composition of pewter 135 

Composition, trinket 129 

Compression, resistance to 283 

Concave and convex moulds 78 

Conducting heat of brass and iron.. 207 
Conducting po»'»r of metals for 

voltaic electricity 38 

Conductors, metals as 22 

Contraction of metals 205 

Cope or back mould 70 

Copper 45,72 

Copper and antimony 109 

Copper and tin mixtures 56 

Copper and zinc 108 

Copper and zinc, alloys of. 57 

Copper and zinc, and copper and 
tin, physical properties of alloys.. 40 

Copper, blanched 73 

Copper medals and medallions 93 

Copper or brass, tinning 2_'l 

Copper, purifying 45 

Cooper, reducing with white Arse- 
nic 223 



PAGB 

Copper, reductic n of. 46 

Copper, tin, and iron alloy 224 

Copper, to silver 112 

Copper, zinc, tin, and lead, alloys 

of. 59 

Cores 209 

Cores, black wash 212 

Cores, stiffening of. 210 

Corinthian bronze 224 

Cornish reducing flux 218 

Cornish refining flux 217 

Corrosion, prevention 194 

Corrosive sublimate 174 

Crucibles 163 

Crucibles, steel 270 

Crude or white flux 217 

Cylinders, weight 121 

Dalton's fusible alloy 80 

Dark gray iron 263 

Davy, Sir Humphrey 27, 175 

Decay of iron 265 

Deep gold-colored lacquer 114, 117 

Density of alloys 89 

Density of cast-iron 263 

Dull gray iron 262 

Drawings, to fix 190 

Earths 175 

Electricity, conducting powers of 

metals 38 

Engravings, transfer of. 77 

Etching varnish 204 

Ethereal solution of gold 180 

Expansion metal 295 

Fenton's anti-friction metal 225 

Figure casting 70 

Fire clay, artificial 186 

Fluidity of metals 104 

Flute valve keys, metal for 136 

Flux, black 21S 

Flux, Cornish reducing 218 

Flux, Cornish refining 217 

Flux, crude or white 217 

Fluxes 101 

Fluxing of metals 220 

Fontainmoreau's alloys 147 

Founding 42 

Friction 98 

Friction of metals, table of. 98 

Fusible alloy, Dalton's 80 

Fusible metal 33 

Fusible metal, Newton's 80 

Fusibility of metals 26 

Fusing and melting points 103 

German silver 139 

German Titanium 186 

Gilders' and jewellers' workshop?, 
washing, sweepings, etc., from .. 214 



INDEX. 



299 



p\r,E 

Glass, powdered flint 142 

Glue, liquid 186 

Glue, portable 191 

Glue, to cast in 83 

Glue, to make fine 83 

Gold and silver solders 126 

Gold coin 33 

Gold coin of United States 129 

Gold-colored lacquer 114 

Gold, ethereal solution of 180 

Gold, green 33 

Gold lacquer.... 115 

Goldleaf. 21 

Goldleaf, its power to transmit 

green rays of light 21 

Gold, Manheim 6) 

Gold, Mosaic 112 

Gold, to cleanse 128 

Goslar zinc 10S 

Government alloy 294 

Grain, tin 48 

Green bronze liquid 117 

Green gold 35 

Gum Arabic solutions, to preserve. 219 
Gum Arabic, use of in mixing 

plaster 75 

Gunbarrels, to brown 179 

Gunbarrels, varnish for 180 

Guns, brass 68 

Hardening steel 167 

Hare, Dr. Robert 133 

Hodgkinson's experiments on the 

strength of iron 259 

Hodgkinson's experiments, tables 

of 285, 289 

Holley on Bessemer steel 268 

Hot and cold blast iron 264 

Imitation silver metal 218 

Improvement in iron manufacture. 226 

Iron, alloys of. 237 

Iron and tin Ill, 224 

Iron and tin, alloy 237 

Iron and zinc, alloy of. 237 

Iron bars, strength of 231 

Iron, case-hardening 218 

Iron, cold and hot blast 240 

Iron, conducting heat 207 

Iron, decay of. 265 

Iron filings 142 

Iron, improvements in manufac- 
ture 226 

Iron, Mallet's Report on 262 

Iron ores, varieties of 227 

Iron, polished, varnish for 219 

Iron, qualities of in casting 206 

Iron, refining 234 

Iron, solder for 129 

Iron, to tin 185 



PAGE 

Iron, varieties of. 262 

Iron, varnish for 219 

Iron, zinc as a covering for 152 

Ivory, to cast figures in imitation 

of 85 

Ivory, to silver 118 

Ivory, to soften 191 

Japanners' varnish 199 

Japanning 196 

Keller's statue composition 107 

Klafroth's experiments 74 

Lace, to separate the gold and 

silver portion of. 191 

Lacquers , 114 

Lacquer, white 225 

Lead 51 

Lead and bismuth 110 

Lee, C. A., on strength of mate- 
rials 252 

Linseed oil 76 

Looking-glasses, amalgam for 33 

Malleable iron 234 

Malleability and ductility of met- 
als 23 

Mallet, R 40 

Mallet's Report on Iron 262 

Manheim gold 60 

Materials, specific gravity and 

weight of. 121 

Materials, strength of. 252 

Medallions 75 

Medals and medallions, copper 92 

Medals, moulds of. 78 

Melting and fusing points 103 

Metallic acids 30 

Metallic alloys 32 

Metallic lustre 20 

Metal plates, weight of. 119 

Metals as conductors 22 

Metals as radiators 22 

Metals as reflectors 22 

Metals, association in nature 35 

Metals, cohesion and strength. .122, 124 
Metals, conducting powers of, for 

Voltaic electricity 38 

Metals, contraction of. 205 

Metals, facility of their combina- 
tion with oxygen 28 

Metals, fluidity of. 104 

Metals, fluxing 220 

Metals, fusibility of. 26 

Metals, malleability and ductility 

of 23 

Metals, melting and fusing points.. 103 

Metals, native 35 

Metals, opacity of. 21 



300 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Metals, precipitation of. 22 

Metals, properties of 19 

Metals, resistance of, to pressure... 125 

Metals, resistance of, to torsion 125 

Metals, solidity of. 20 

Metals, specific gravity ,. 27 

Metals, surface of. 73 

Metals, table of. 37 

Metals, table of tenacities 222 

Metals, table showing the order 
which they bear to one another 

as to their properties 24 

Metals, tenacity of 23 

Micaceous iron 262 

Mirrors, brass 72 

Mirrors for telescopes 144 

Mixtures of tin and copper 56 

Mordant varnish 201 

Mosaic gold 112 

Mosaic mixture 136 

Mottled iron 262 

Moulding, brass 62 

Moulding, sand-core 208 

Moulds 63 

Moulds, density of. 207 

Moulds, filling 65 

Moulds, to cast concave and con- 
vex, of medals 78 

Music, plates for 33 

Native metals 35 

Newton, Sir Isaac 21 

Newton's fusible metal 80 

Niello-metallic ornaments 1S8 

Opacity of metals 21 

Ores...*. 35 

Orichalcum 107 

Ornaments, composition for 86 

Oxygen, facility of combination of 
metals with 28 

Packf mg, Chinese 108 

Pale brass-colored lacquer 115 

Pale brass lacquer 116 

Pale tin lacquer 116 

Pattern making 205 

Patterns, measuring 205 

Pellatt, F 152 

Pewter 32, 109 

Pewter, compositions of. 135 

Pinchbeck 32, 60 

Pipes, table of. 120 

Pipes, water in 163 

Plaster, casting in 75 

Plaster casts, to varnish 77 

Platina 144 

1'latina, solvent 144 

Plates, weight of metal 119 

Plumbago 166 



PAGE 

Plumbers' solder 135 

Polish, French 20C 

Pouillet, researches. of. 38 

Pressure of metal in casting 211 

Pressure of water under different 

heads 289 

Pressure, resistance of metals to... 125 

Princess metal 61 

Properties of metals 19 

Properties of metals, table of. 24, 54 

Puddled steel 270 

Puddling 235 

Qualities of iron in casting 206 

Queen's metal Ill 

Red-colored lacquer 114 

Red lacquer 115 

Reducing copper with white arse- 
nic 223 

Reduction of copper 46 

Reduction of tin, grain and block 

tin 49 

Refining iron 234 

Kennie, Sir John, experiments 99 

Resistance of metals to conduction 

of electricity 38 

Resistance to compression 233 

Rice glue statuary 85 

Rock-sand for cores 2 f »9 

Rose's alloy 80 

Sand-core moulding 208 

Sand, moulding 213 

Sea-sand for cores 209 

Selenium 172 

Semi-steel 270 

Ship-nails, composition for 225 

Silver and gold solders 126 

Silver coin 33 

Silver-leaf 21 

Silver metal, imitation 218 

Silver plate and medal alloy 129 

Silver solder 128 

Silver steel 109 

Silver, to brass 283 

Silver, to cleanse 128 

Silvering brass, composition for 267 

Silvering ivory 118 

Silvery iron 262 

Silvery-looking metal 136 

Soft solders 134, 294 

Solder, brass 127 

Solder, fine brazing 61 

Solder for iron 129 

Solder for lead 134 

Solder for soft solder 204 

Solder, plumbers' 135 

Solders, gold and silver 126 

Solders, soft 13-1 



INDEX. 



301 



PAGE 

Soldering and burning metals 130 

Soldering gold and silver 127 

Solidity of metals 20 

Soluble glass 195 

Spanish Titanium 137 

Specific gravity aud weight of ma- 
terials 121 

Specific gravity of metals 27 

Speculum metal 140 

Speculums 143 

Statuary, rice glue 85 

Statues, bronze for 55 

Steel, blister 271 

Steel, blueing and gilding 192 

Steel by Bessemer process 268 

Steel, crucible 270 

Steel dies, to harden 193 

Steel, hardening 167 

Steel, high 268 

Steel, low 269 

Steel, puddled 270 

Steel, semi 270 

Steel tires. 248 

Steel, to preserve polished from 

rust 198 

Sterling on improvements in iron.. 226 
Strength and cohesion of metals.122, 124 
Strength and density of cast-iron... 263 

Strength of cast-iron 259 

Strength of iron bars 231 

Strength of materials 252 

Strength of materials, table of 255 

Sulphur 170 

Sulphur, cast in 82 

Surface of metals 73 

Sweepings, washing 214 

Syracuse bronze 224 

Table for converting decimal pro- 
portions into divisions of the 

pound 106 

Temper 54 

Tenacities of metals 23 

Tenacities of metals, table of. 222 

Thompson, Lewis, invention for 

purifying copper 45 

Tin and copper mixtures 56 

Tin and iron Ill, 224 

Tin and lead, full measure of capa- 
city of. 110 

Tin and zinc 111,223 

Tin orbedil 47 

Tin, reduction of. 49 

Tin, to coat nails, etc., with 181 

Tin-foil 33 

Tinning 181 

Tinning cast cupper or brass 221 



PAGE 

Tinning of iron 185 

Tires, railway 243, 245 

Titanium, German 136 

Titanium, Spanish 137 

To cast vegetables, insects, etc 79 

Tombac, varieties of. 208 

Torsion, resistance of metals to 125 

Toughened cast-iron 246 

Toughening or refining copper 47 

Tracing paper 189 

Transfer of engravings to plaster 

casts 77 

Transparent varnish 203 

Transverse strain, resistance to 285 

Trinket composition 129 

Tutenag 295 

Type metal 33, 138 

Varnish, etching 204 

Varnish, flexible 200 

Varnish for colored drawings 199 

Varnish for gunbarrels 180 

Varnish for iron 219 

Varnish for polished iron 219 

Varnish, hard 200 

Varnish, mordant 201 

Varnish plaster casts 77 

Varnish, soft 199 

Varnish, transparent 203 

Vegetables, insects, birds, frogs, 
fish, to cast 79 

Washing sweepings, ashes, from 

brass foundry furnaces, etc 214 

Water in pipes, table of. 162 

Water, static pressure of. 289 

Wax, to cast in 81 

Weapons and tools in bronze 73 

White arsenic for reducing copper. 223 

White lacquer 225 

White metal 135 

White metals, Chinese 225 

Wooden patterns 205 

Wrought-iron 268 

Wrought-iron scrap, with pig... 243, 249 
Wrought-iron, table of strength of.. 240 
Wrought-iron, toughened 240 

Yellow brass 92 

Zinc 50 

Zinc and copper, alloys of. 57 

Zinc and mercury amalgam 33 

Zinc and tin Ill, 223 

Zinc as a covering for iron 152 

Zinc, electro-deposition of on iron.. 152 

Zincing 118 



THE END 



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Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns 
used by Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical 
Geometry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables of the 
AVeight of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Cir- 
cumferences of Circles ; Japans, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, 
Compositions, etc. etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Me- 
chanic. "With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



BOOTH. -MARBLE WORKER'S MANUAL : 

Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in gene- 
ral, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing ; Veneering of 
Marble ; Mosaics ; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, 
Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc. etc. Translated 
from the French by M. L. Booth. With an Appendix con- 
cerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 

pOOTH AND MORFIT.— THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY, 
JJ PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL : 

Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, 
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, 
Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of 
Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc, assisted \>y 
Campbell Morfit, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc. 
Seventh edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 
pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00 

DOWDITCH,— ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIFI- 

D CATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS : 

By Rev. W. R. Bowditch. Illustrated with wood engrav- 
ings. 8vo. $G 50 

•DOX.— PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS : 

A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. 
By Thomas Box. 12mo. $2 50 

TDOCKMASTER.— THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS : 

By J. C. Buckmaster, late Student in the Government School 
of Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of 
Science and Art ; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the 
Royal College of Preceptors ; and late Lecturer in Chemistry 
and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated 
with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $1 50 

UULLOCK.— THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER : 

A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to 
to $20,000 for Homes for the People ; together with Warm- 
ing, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Garden- 
ing. By John Bullock, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechani- 
cian, and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Building," etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol. 
8vo $3 5p 



HENRY CAREY BATRB'S CATALOGUE. 



DULLOCK. — THE RUDIMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND 

D BUILDING : 

For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machin- 
ists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, 
author of " The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 
250 engravings. In one volume 8vo. . . . $8 50 

TjURGH.— PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MA- 

■° RINE ENGINES : 

Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low 
Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together 
•with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. Burgii, Engineer. 
Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text. 

$21 00 

•pURGH.— PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF 

D MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MA- 
RINE PURPOSES. 
By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. 12mo. . . . $2 00 

TjURGH.— THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED : 
By N. P. Burgii, author of "A Treatise on Sugar Machinery," 
"Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," "A 
Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Ma- 
rine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated. 
12mo $2 00 

DYRN.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER : 

Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of 
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making 
Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger- 
pop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted 
to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. La 
Fayette Byrn, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo. $1 25 

t)YR^.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER : 

Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Prac- 
tical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification; 
including all of the most recent improvements in distilling 
apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the nume- 
rous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; directions for the distillation and 
preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spiritu- 
ous and other compounds, etc. etc. ; all of which is so simpli- 
fied that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distil- 
lers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage 
in the art of distilling. By M. La Fayette Byrn, M. D. 
With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 



HENRY CAHEY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



DYRNE.— POCKET BOOK FOR RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGL* 
NEERS ; 

Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out 
Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the 
Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cut- 
tings; Embankments; Earth-work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. 
Illustrated, lSnio,, full bound $175 

"DYRNE.-THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC, 
AND ENGINEER : 

By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 Wood Engravings. Svo. 

$5 00 

•DYRNE.-THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL ME- 

"" CHANICS : 

For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work. 
By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engrav- 
ings, 12mo. $ 3 63 

gYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL METAL-WORKER'S ASSISTANT: 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all 
Metals and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and 
Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; 
Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the 
Ductility of the Metals ; Soldering ; and the most Improved 
Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the 
Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufactu- 
ring Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from the 
Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and 
others. By Oliver Byrne. A New, Revised, and improved 
Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B , William Clay, 
Win. Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hun- 
dred and Ninety-two Engravings ; Illustrating every Branch 
of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages . $7 00 

"DYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL MODEL CALCULATOR: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, 
Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 
1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages . . . . $4 50 

gEMROSE.-MANUAL OF WOOD CARVING : With Practical II- 
lustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected de- 
signs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Introduction by 
Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to. 
cIoth $3 00 



6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



"DAIRD.— PROTECTION OF HOME LABOR AND HOME PRO- 
•° BUCTIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSPERITY OF THE 

AMERICAN FARMER : 

By Henry Carey Baird. 8vo., paper . 10 

"DAIRD.— THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCERS, AND THE 
WRONGS OF BRITISH FREE TRADE REVENUE REFORM. 
By Henry Carey Baird. (1870) .... 5 

"DAIRD.— SOME OF THE FALLACIES OF BRITISH-FREE-TRADE 
,D REVENUE-REFORM. 

Two Letters to Prof. A. L. Perry, of Williams College, Mass. By 
Henry Carey Baird. (1871.) Paper .... 5 

"DAIRD —STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES : 

An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so ar- 
ranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a spe- 
cified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By 
T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio $5 00 

•DAUERMAN.— TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON. 
Illustrated. 12mo $2 50 

-DICKNELL'.S VILLAGE BUILDER. 

"^ 55 large plates. 4to $10 00 

BISHOP.— A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES : 

From 1608 to 1S66 ; exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Prin- 
cipal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial 
Period to the Present Time ; By J. Leander Bishop, M. D., Ed- 
ward Young, and Edwin T. Freedley. Three vols. 8vo., 

$10 00 

OX— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT AS APPLIED TO 
THE USEFUL ARTS : 

For the use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By Thomas Box, au- 
thor of "Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated by 14 plates, con- 
taining 114 figures. 12mo $4 25 

HABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE : 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most 
Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large 
and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong 

$5 00 

riH APMAN.— A TREATISE ON ROPE-MAKING : 

As practised in private and public Rope-yards, with a Description 
of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the 
Trade; Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By Robert 
Chapman. 24mo » . . . $1 50 



B 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



fjRAIK.— THE PRACTICAL AMERICAN MILLWRIGHT AND 
y MILLER. 

Comprising the Elementary Principles of Mechanics, Me- 
chanism, and Motive Power, Hydraulics and Hydraulic 
Motors, Mill-dams, Saw Mills, Grist Mills, the Oat Meal Mill, 
the Barley Mill, Wool Carding, and Cloth Fulling and Dress- 
ing, Wind Mills, Steam Power, &c. By David Ckaik, Mill- 
wright. Illustrated by numerous wood engravings, and five 
folding plates. 1 vol. 8vo. . . . . $5 00 

flAMPIN.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL EN- 
^ GINEERING: 

Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, 
Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture 
of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Ana- 
lysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To 
which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam 
Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Preven- 
tion; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., 
and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels 
for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting 
Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, including 
Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and 
Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 
8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings. 

$G 00 

HAMPIN.—THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD, 
U IVORY, SHELL, ETC.? 

With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be 
required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also 
an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By Francis Campin , 
with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth . . $3 00 

rjAPRON DE DOLE— DUSSAUCE.— BLUES AND CARMINES OF 
U INDIGO. 

A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial 
Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole 
Translated, with important additions, by Professor If. Dus- 
sauce. 12mo. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



pAREY.— THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY : 

CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE-* 
SUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo. 38 

FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper 

25 

HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturing, 

and Commercial. 8vo., paper . . . . . $1 00 

Do. do. cloth . . . $1 50 

LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
Paper $1 00 

MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's 
"Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. 1 vol. 
12mo $2 25 

MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Inter- 
ests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and 
American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo 
England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union," 
"The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review 
of the Decade 1857 — '67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol. 
8vo., cloth $4 50 

MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Sta- 
tistical Society. 8vo., paper ..... 25 

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo. . . . $2 50 
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth 

$10 00 
REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857— 'G7. 8vo., paper 50 

RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- 
LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo, 
paper . 50 

THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to 
provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- 
tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- 
sion. 8vo., paper ....... 25 

THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 
18G5, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- 
ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 50 

THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it 
Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth if>l 5<? 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 9 



LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. ( 18G7.) 
Paper 50 

REVIEW OF THE FARMERS' QUESTION. (1870.) Paper 25 

RESUMPTION! HOW IT MAY PROFITABLY BE BROUGHT 
AROUT. (18G9.) 8vo., paper .... 50 

REVIEW OF THE REPORT OF HON. D. A. WELLS, Special 
Commissioner of the Revenue. (18G0.) 8vo., paper 50 

SHALL WE HAVE PEACE ? Peace Financial and Peace Poli- 
tical. Letters to the President Elect. (18(38.) 8vo., paper 50 

THE FINANCE MINISTER AND THE CURRENCY, AND 
THE PUBLIC DEBT. (18G8.) 8vo., paper . . 50 

THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING 
HER. Letters to Hon. Schuyler Colfax. (1865.) 8vo., paper 

$1 00 
WEALTH! OF WHAT DOES IT CONSIST ? (1870.) Paper 25 

flAMTJS.— A TREATISE ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS : 

Demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the 
purposes of Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work. Trans- 
lated from the French of M. Camus. By John I. Hawkins. 
Illustrated by 40 plates. 8vo $3 00 

rjOXE.— MINING LEGISLATION. 

A paper read before the Am. Social Science Association. By 
Eckley B. Coxe. Paper 20 

pOLBURN.— THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON: 

Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of 
Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By Zeraii 
Colburn. 8vo., cloth ...... 75 

pOLBURN.— THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE: 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimat- 
ing its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construc- 
tion and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. A 
new edition. 12mo. . . . . . $1 25 

pOLBURN AND MAW.— THE WATER- WORKS OF LONDON: 
Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water- 
works. By Zkrah Colburn and W. Maw. Reprinted from 
"Engineering." In one volume, 8vo. . . $4 00 

T\ \GUERRE0TYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION: 
U 12mo., cloth $1 25 



D 



10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

•niRCKS.— PERPETUAL MOTION : 

Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17th, 18th, and 
19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in 
Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent 
Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by Henry Dircks, 
C. E. Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines. 
12mo., cloth $3 50 

TjIXON.— THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S 
U GUIDE : 

Or Tables for Finding tbe Diameter and Power of Cogwheels ; 
Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts ; Diameter and Strength 
of Bolts, etc. etc. By Thomas Dixon. 12mo., cloth. %\ 50 
"nUNCAN.— PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person, of 
common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of 
a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. 

$1 25 
USSAUCE.— A NEW AND COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE 
ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESS- 
ING : 

Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in 
France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from 
Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, 
Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Rene', De Fontenelle, Mala- 
peyre, etc. etc. By Prof. II. Dussauce, Chemist. Illustrated 

by 212 wood engravings. 8vo $10 00 

USSAUCE— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE 
OF SOAP, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL: 
Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, a Description of nil the Raw 
Materials and their Uses. Directions for the Establishment of a 
Soap Factory, with the necessary Apparatus, Instructions in the 
Manufacture of every variety of Soap, the Assay and Determination 
of the Value of Alkalies, Fatty Substances, Soaps, etc. etc. By 
Professor II. Dussauce. With an Appendix, containing Ex- 
tracts from the Reports of the International Jury on Soaps, as 
exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, numerous 
Tables, etc. etc. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume 8vo. 

of over 800 pages $10 00 

TlUSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION 
•^ OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POW- 
DERS. 
By Professor II. Dussauce. 12rao. . . . $3 00 



D 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. II 

T\USSAUCE.— A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER: 
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the 
Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a 
Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Form- 
ulae of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosme- 
tics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, AVaters, Extracts, Tinc- 
tures, Infusions, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, 
Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. 
Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel, 
etc. Withadditions by Professor H. Dussauce, Chemist. 12mo. 

$3 00 
nUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE 
■*-' OF VINEGAR, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. 

Comprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick pro- 
cesses, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Cider, and Molasses, as well 
as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc. By Prof. II. Dussauce. 
I2mo. $5 00 

nUPLAIS.— A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DISTILLATION 
U AND MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS : 

From the French of M. Duplais. Translated and Edited by M. 
McKenxie, M D. Illustrated by numerous large plates and wood 
engravings of the best apparatus calculated for producing the 
finest products. In one vol. royal 8vo. $10 00 

[Xp 3- This is a treatise of the highest scientific merit and of the 
greatest practical value, surpassing in these respects, as well as 
in the variety of its contents, any similar volume in the English 
language. 

j>E GRAFF.— THE GEOMETRICAL STAIR-BUILDERS' GUIDE : 

Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all 
its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel 
Engravings : together with the use of the most approved princi- 
ples of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect. 

4to $5«ll 

YER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION : 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- 
lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles 
and fabrics now in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and 
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the 
Goods. In one vol. 12mo. . . . . . $1 25 



D 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S catalogue. 



E ASTON.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSE- 
POWER RAILWAYS : 

Their Location, Construction, and Management; -with General 
Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; toge- 
ther with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages 
over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for 
Investment; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relat- 
ing thereto. By Alexander Easton, C. E. Illustrated by 23 
plates, 8vo., cloth $2 00 

paRSYTH.— BOOK OF DESIGNS FOR H3AD-ST0NES, MURAL, 
C AND OTHER MONUMENTS : 

Containing 78 Elaborate and Exquisite Designs. By Forsyth. 

4to., cloth $5 00 

*;£* This volume, for the beauty and variety of its designs, has 
never been surpassed by any publication of the kind, and should 
be in the hands of every marble-worker who does fine monumental 
work. 

pAIRBAIRN.— THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MA- 

£ CHINERY OF TRANSMISSION : 

Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and 
Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By William Fairbairn, 
Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member 
of the National Institute of Prance, and of the Royal Academy 
of Turin ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beau- 
tifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo. 

$2 50 

"DAIRBAIRN.— PRIME-MOVERS : 

Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power ; the Construc- 
tion of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam; 
the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills. 
By William Fairbairn, C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Au- 
thor of "Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Trans- 
mission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In 
press.) 

niLBART.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING: 

By James William Gilbart. To which is added: The Na- 
tional Bank Act as now in force. 8vo. . . $4 50 

HESNER.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COAL, PETROLEUM, 
** AND OTHER DISTILLED OILS. 

By Abraham Gesner, M. D., F. G. S. Second edition, revised 
and enlarged. By George Weltden Gesner, Consulting 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated. 8vo. . . $3 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13 



HOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS: 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. II* 
lustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved 
plates. Oblong . $3 00 

HR ANT.— BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE 
U BEET : 

By E. B. Grant. 12mo $1 25 

HREGORY.— MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN ; 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, 
and Civil Engineers. By Olinthtjs Gregory. 8vo., plates, 
cloth $3 00 

HRIS WOLD —RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION. 

Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and 
Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary 
Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Prelimi- 
nary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Ex- 
pressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valu- 
able Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks. 

$1 75 
nUETTIER— METALLIC ALLOYS: 

Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Pro- 
perties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated 
from the French of A. Guettier, Engineer and Director of 
Founderies, author of "La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By 
A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo. 

$3 00 

TJATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical 

Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c , 8vo. 

$1 25 
TTAY.— THE INTERIOR DECORATOR : 

The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decora- 
tions : with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D. 
R. Hay, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Dia- 
gram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo. 

$2 25 

TTUGHES.— AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S AS- 

■ C1 SISTANT : 

By Wm. Carter Hughes. A new edition. In one volume, 
12mo. .... . . . » $1 50 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

NT— THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 

By Robert Hunt, Vice-President of the Photographic Society, 

London. With numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth . 75 



TJTJRST.— A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS : 

Comprising Formulae useful in Designing Builders' work, Table 
of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda 
connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of 
Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Pro- 
perty, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By 
J. F. Hurst, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound 

$2 60 

TERVIS.— RAILWAY PROPERTY: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Mana- 
gers, Officers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Chief 
Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct^ &c. 
One vol. 12mo., cloth .... . $2 00 



JOHNSON.— A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE 
" UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS : 

Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By 
Walter R. Johnson. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp. 
8vo., . . ... $10 00 



JOHNSTON.— INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, 
" LIMESTONES, AND MANURES 

By J. W. F. Johnston. 12mo. .... 35 



TZEENE.— A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING, 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Dis- 
tillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom 
House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By James B. 
Keene, of II. M. Customs. 8vo. . . $1 25 



HENRY CAREY BATRD'S CATALOGUE. 15 

TTENTISH.— A TKEATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Lo- 
garithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measur- 
ing of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. 
By Thomas Kentish. Iu one volume. ]2mo. . . $1 25 



T7"0BELL.— ERNL— MINERALOGY SIMPLIFIED : 

A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by 
means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. 
Translated from the last German Edition of F. Von Kobell, 
with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other addi- 
tions. By Henri Erni, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of 
Agriculture, author of "Coal Oil and Petroleum." In one 
volume. 12mo. ... . . $2 50 



T ANDRIN.— A TREATISE ON STEEL : 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Work- 
ing, and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. 
Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer 
and the Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the 
Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to 
the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 12mo. . . $3 00 



TARKIN.— THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S 
JJ GUIDE. 

A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals 
and their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improve- 
ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Pro- 
cess, etc. etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass 
Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, 
Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with extensive Addi- 
tions. In one volume. 12mo $2 25 



IIENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

TEAVITT.— FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL: 
With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities 
in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu 
facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable; toge 
ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Inte- 
rest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal 
Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at 
Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By II. 
T. Leavitt. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $1 7-j 

TEROUX — A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFAC- 

Jj TURS OF WORSrEDS AND CARDED YARNS: 

Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, MechanicaJ 
Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. By Dr II. 
Paine, and A. A. Fesquet. Illustrated by 12 large plates. In 
one volume 8vo. . . . . . , . . $5 00 

TESLIE (MISS).— COMPLETE COOKERY: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss 
Leslie. 60th edition. Thoroughly revised, with the addi- 
tion of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth . . §1 50 

TESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK: 

a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., 
cloth $1 25 

TESLIE (MISS).— TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH 
n COOKERY. 

12mo 50 

T LEBER.— ASSAYER'S GUIDE : 

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for 
the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the 
Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and 
Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. 12mo., cloth 

$1 25 

T OVE.— THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND 

■^ FINISHING : 

On the most approved English and French methods ; being 
Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, 
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and 
Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English 
Cleaning, etc. By Thomas Love. Second American Edition, to 
which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline 
Colors. 8vo 5 00 



M 



M 



HENRY CAREY BALRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 

AIN AND BROWN.— QUESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED 
WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE : 

And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. By 
Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 
and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R.N. 12mo., cloth $1 50 

AIN AND BROWN— THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETEE : 

With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By 
Thomas J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief En- 
gineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. From 
the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. ... . $1 50 

TWTAIN AND BROWN— THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 

By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at 
Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. 
Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College. 
Authors of "Questions Connected with the Marine Steam-En- 
gine," and the li Indicator and Dynamometer." With numerous 
Illustrations. In one volume 8vo. . . . . . $5 00 

TWTARTIN.— SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF ME- 

1VJ - CHANICAL ENGINEERS : 

Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the 
Threads of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for 
Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. 
Martin, Engineer. 8vo. ....... 50 

jWriLES— A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING. 

With Illustrations. By William Miles, author of " The Horse's 

Foot" 

TWrOLESWORTH.— POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULA AND 
1¥J - MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHANICAL EN3INEERS. 
By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. 
Second American from the Tenth London Edition. In one 
volume, full bound in pocket-book form . . . . $2 00 

OORE— THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE : 

Patent Office and Patent Laws : or, a Guide to Inventors, and a 
Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others. 

By J G. Moore. ]2mo., cloth $1 25 

f\TAPIER.— A MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY : 

Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. 
By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In 
one volume, 8vo $2 00 



M 



18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



■JJAPIES— A SYSTEM OF CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO DYEINS: 

Bv James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised 
Edition, completely brought up to the present state of the 
Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors. By A. A. 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing 
and Calico Printing, as shown at the Paris Universal Exposition 
of IS67, from the Reports of the International Jury, etc. Illus- 
trated. In one volume 8vo., 400 pages . . . . $5 00 

•RTEWBERY.— GLEANINGS FROM ORNAMENTAL ART OF 
X ' EVERY STYLE; 

Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
18G2, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one 
hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred ex- 
amples. By Robert Newberv. 4to $15 00 

■JTICHOLSON.— A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING : 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forward- 
ing, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book- 
edges and Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. 12mo. 
cloth .... $2 2i 

TVTORRIS.— A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND 
XN MACHINISTS: 

Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing 
Locomotives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, 
Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By Septimus Norris, Civil and Me- 
chanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth 

$2 00 

■MTSTROM. — ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE 
CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS: 

For Naval and Marine Engineers. By Jonx W. Nvstrom, late 
Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with 
additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. 

$2 50 

NEILL.— A DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINT- 
ING: 

Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics: with Prac- 
tical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, 
Analytical Chemist; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London; 
Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; 
Author of " Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." To which 
is added An Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their Application to 







HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 

Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as 
shown at the Exposition of 1S67, from the Reports of the Interna, 
tional Jury, etc. In one volume 8vo., 491 pages . . $0 00 

QSBORN.— THE METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL: 

Theoretical and Practical : In all its Branches ; With Special Re- 
ference to American Materials and Processes. By II. S. Osborn, 
LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, 
Easton, Pa. Illustrated by 230 Engravings on Wood, and 6 
Folding Plates. 8vo., 972 pages $10 00 

QSBORN.— AMERICAN MINES AND MINING : 

v Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. II. S. Os- 
born, Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (hi preparation.) 

pAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION : 

Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the 
Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, with 
numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the Detection 
of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement of the Dis- 
eases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers 
are particularly liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention 
and Remedy. With Directions for Graining, Marbling, Sign Writ- 
ing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are added Complete Instruc- 
tions for Coach Painting and Varnishing. 12mo., cloth, $1 60 

pALLETT.— THE MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGI- 

J - NEER'S GUIDE. 

By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. . $3 00 

pERKINS.— GAS AND VENTILATION. 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scien- 
tific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With illustrated 
Diagrams. By E. E. Perkins. 12mo., cloth . . . $1 25 

pERKINS AND STOWE.— A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET-IRON 

r AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER: 

Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and 
Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the 
Sizes of Bars to Produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar 
Gauge in Decimals ; the AVeight per foot, and the Thickness on 
the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the 
AVeight per sheet, and the Thickness on the AVire Gauge of Sheet- 
iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle ; and the 
conversion of Short Weight into Long AVeight, and Long AVeight 
into Short. Estimated and collected by G. II. Perkins and J. G- 
Stowk $?!>» 



20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



pHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.— RECORDS OF MINING AND 
X METALLURGY : 

Or, Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and 
Smelter. By J. ARTHUR PHILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate of 
the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and Joiin Darlington. 
Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $2 00 

pRADAL, MALEPEYRE, AND DUSSAUCE. — A COMPLETE 

* TREATISE ON PERFUMERY: 

Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Ait, and the 
Best Formula;. According to the most approved Methods followed 
in France, England, and the United States. By M. P. Pradae, 
Perfumer-Chemist, and M. F. MALEPEYRE. Translated from the 
French, with extensive additions, by Prof. II. Dussauce. 8vo. $10 

pROTEAUX.— PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE 
X OF PAPER AND BOARDS. 

By A. Puoteaux, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of 
Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers's Paper Mill, 'Puy-de- 
Domc. With additions, by L. S. Le Normand. Translated from 
the French, with Notes, by Horatio Paine, A. B., M. D. To 
which Is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood 
in the United States, by IIknuv T. BROWN, of the "American 
Artisan." Illustrated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw 
Materials, Machinery, Plans of Paper- Mills, etc. etc. 8vo. $5 00 
-DEGNAULT— ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. 

By M. V. Rbgnault. Translated from the French by T. For- 
REST Benton, M. IV., and edited, with notes, by James C. Booth, 
Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and Wm. L. Faber, Metallurgist 
and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. 
Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two vols. 8vo., cloth $10 00 

•DEID.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF 

^ PORTLAND CEMENT: 

By Henry Reid, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. 
A. Lipowitz's Work, describing anew method adopted in Germany 
of Manufacturing that Cement. By W. F. Heid. Illustrated by 
plates and wood engravings. 8vo. . . . . . $7 00 

-DIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL 
11 TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF COLORS FOR 
PAINTING : 

Containing the best Formulae and the Processes the Newest and 
in most General Use. By MM. Riffat/LT, Vergnatjd, and Tous- 
saint. Revised and Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. Emu, 
Winckler. Illustrated by Engravings. In one vol. 8vo. (In 
■preparation*) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 21 



RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL 
TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES : 
By MM. Riffault, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revised and 
Edited by M. F. Malepeyre and Dr. Emil Winckler. Illus- 
trated. In one vol. 8vo. {hi prejyaration.) 

S HUNK.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES 
AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS. 
By Wm. F. Shunk, Civil Engineer. 12mo., tucks . . $2 00 

OMEATON.— BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION: 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architec. 
ture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the sub- 
ject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 
12mo $ l 50 

SMITH.— THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR: 
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cot- 
ton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing nearly 
800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Pad- 
ding ; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, 
and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of 
such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer, 12mo., cloth 

$3 06 

SMITH.— THE PRACTICAL DYER'S GUIDE: 
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs, 
Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, ditto 
from White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos, 
Yarns, Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to 
most of which a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, a Treatise on 
the Art of Padding. By David Smith. In one vol. 8vo. $25 00 

qHAW.— CIVIL ARCHITECTURE: 

^ Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, 
containing the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward 
Shaw, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Archi- 
tecture, &c. By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Hard- 
ing , Architects. The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely 
engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to. Cloth. $10 00 

SLOAN.— AMERICAN HOUSES : 
A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc. etc. 8vo. 

$2 50 



S 



CHINZ.— RESEARCHES ON THE ACTION OF THE BLAST. 
FURNACE. 

By Chas. Schinz, Seven plates. 12mo. . . . &4 25 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

HMITH.— PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS : 

Or, Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, 
and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener 
and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo. . . . . $2 25 

qTOKES— CABINET-MAKER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPA- 
° NION : 

Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and 
Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples 
for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable 
to Cabinet-work ; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and 
Buhl- work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise 
Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; 
to make French Polish ; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and 
Compositions, and a number of Receipts, particularly for workmen 
generally. By J. Stokes. In one vol. 12mo. With illustrations 

$1 25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS. 

Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Test- 
ing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By 
Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority 
of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In 
1 vol. quarto . $10 00 

OULLIVAN.— PROTECTION TO NATIVE INDUSTRY. 

^ By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet. (1870.) 8vo. . $1 50 

rnABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND 
1 FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC. 

By Measurement. Cloth 63 

rpAYLOR.— STATISTICS OF COAL: 

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and 
Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commer- 
cial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on 
the American Continent. * With Incidental Statistics of the Iron 
Manufacture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. 
S. Haldeman. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engrav- 
ings. 8vo. r cloth $6 00 

rnEBTPLETQN.— THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR ON STEAM 

■*• AND THE STEAM-ENGINE : 

With Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of Engi- 
neers, Students, and others. By Wm. Temfleton, Engineer 12rao. 

£1 25 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 



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I 



TJHOMAS.— THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
**• By R. W. Thomas, F.C.S. 8vo., cloth . ... 75 

HOMSON.— FREIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR. 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent . . . . $1 25 
pURNING : SPECIMENS OF FANCY TURNING EXECUTED ON 
■*" THE HAND OR FOOT LATHE: 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cut- 
ting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Pho- 
tographs. 4to. ........ $3 00 

lURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric 
Turning ; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- 
ments ; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, 
Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest ; with Patterns and Instruc- 
tions for working them. A new edition in 1 vol. 12mo. $1 50 

TTRBIN — BRULL. — A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PUDDLING 
U IRON AND STEEL. 

By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize 
Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the 
School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1S65-6. 
To which is added a Comparison of the Resisting Properties 
of Iron and Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French 
by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo. 

$1 00 

"Y70GDES.— THE ARCHITECT'S AND BUILDER'S POCKET COM- 
" PANION AND PRICE BOOK. 

By F. W. Vogdes, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket- 
book form. $2 00 

In book form, 18mo., muslin . . « . . 1 50 

WARN.— THE SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR, FOR 
VV ZINC, SHEET-IRON, COPPER AND TIN PLATE WORK- 
ERS, &c. 

By Reuben Henry "Warn, Practical Tin Plate Worker. Illus- 
trated by 32 plates and 37 wood engravings. 8vo. . . $3 CO 

TTyATSON— A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE. 

* ^ By Egbert P. Watson, Late of the " Scientific American," Au- 
thor of "Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engi- 
neers,'' In one volume, 12mo. . . . . . $1 50 



24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

WATSON.— THE MODERN PRACTICE OF AMERICAN MA. 
" CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS : 

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work Generally, 
■with the most Economical Speed of the same, the Results verified 
by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. 
Together with Workshop management, Economy of Manufacture, 
the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc. etc. By Egbert 
P. Watson, late of the "Scientific American." Illustrated by 
eighty-six engravings. 12mo. . . . . . $2 50 

WATSON.— THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF 

VV WEAVING BY HAND AND POWER: 

With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with 
the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine 
Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the best Power-Looms. 
8vo $10 00 

WEATHERLY.— TREATISE ON .THE ART OF BOILING SU- 
" Y GAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS, 
GUM GOODS, 

And other processes for Confectionery, &c. In which are ex- 
plained, in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods 
of Manufacturing every description of Raw and Refined Sugar 
Goods, as sold by Confectioners and others . . . $2 00 

ILL.— TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 

By Prof. Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi- 
tion. Translated by Charles F. Himes, Ph. D., Professor of 
Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . . $1 25 

WILLIAMS.— ON HEAT AND STEAM : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Expan- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. 

$3 50 

WORSSAM.— ON MECHANICAL SAWS: 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1867. By 
S. W. Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large folding plates. 8vo. 

$5 00 

tjlTfOHLER.— A HAND-BOOK OF MINERAL ANALYSIS. 

By F. Wohler. Edited by H. B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry, 
Rensselaer Institute, Troy, N. Y. With numerous Illustrations. 
l2mo $ 3 00 



JAN If 1948 



